Laws and Legislation Essay

Main principles: The Act sets out the general guidelines that employers have towards employees, and employees have to themselves and to each other . These guidelines are set in the Act by the principle of so far as is reasonably practicable. In other words, an employer does not have to take measures to avoid or reduce the risk if they are technically impossible or if the time, trouble or cost of the measures would be grossly disproportionate to the risk. This also includes and mandatory training that must be completed before commencing in the work place i.e Moving and handling. Influence in my own job role: In my job role I refer to this act daily as I continually risk assess any type of situation and ensure I adhere to this act at all times by ensuring that I do not put myself or others at any risk. With new staff members, I ensure that they are allocated a place on the next Moving and Handling course and ensure that they are not working with any tenant that may include using hoists etc. Control of substances hazardous to health regulation 2002 COSHH is the law that requires employers to control substances that may be hazardous to health. This can be prevented by finding out what the health hazards are by contacting the company of any cleaning product etc and gaining a data sheet for this. deciding how to prevent harm to health by completing a risk assessment for each cleaning product as per the Data Sheet. providing control measures to reduce harm to health. After completing the risk assessment, decide whether to used the product. making sure they are used by including ways to prevent i.e skin contact with a hazardous substance and ways this can be resolved if this does happen. Ensuring that all risk assessments are reviewed regularly. Influence in my own job role: Again I use this in my every day working life as I ensure that all cleaning products have data sheets and no product that has not been risk assessed is used. I also ensure that no bleach products are used in the tenants own homes. I also ensure that the risk assessments are reviewed every 6 months. RIDDOR regulations 1995 Main Principles: This regulation requires employers to report job related injuries that result in 3 or more days off work. Also the employer must report and outbreak of illness or disease in the workplace. This is in accordance with the Health and Safety at work Act 1974. This helps the Health and Safety Executive to investigate and find out ways of preventing workplace injuries. Influence in my job role: I use knowledge of this regulation all the time in my day to day job. As a senior support worker I ensure that any injury sustained in correctly written up and reported to the correct people. Personal Protective Equipment at work regulation 1992 The Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations 1992 cover equipment intended to be used by a person at work that requires protection against health and safety risks. This includes protective clothing (e.g. overalls, weatherproof clothing, gloves, safety footwear) as well as equipment such as protective eyewear and safety harnesses. Influence in my job role. I use PPE every day in my job as I am required to carry out personal care on service users. This is to protect myself from any health and safety risks e.g slipping on floors, cutting myself, cross contamination. I also ensure that all support worker use PPE where applicable. The Data Protection act 1998 The purpose of the Act is to protect the rights and privacy of individuals, and to ensure that data about them are not gathered without their knowledge and are gained with their consent wherever possible. The Act covers personal data relating to living people. There are 8 main principles to this act which are: 1. Personal data shall be processed fairly and lawfully 2. Personal data shall be obtained only for a specified and lawful purpose or purposes, and shall not be further processed in any manner incompatible with that purpose or purposes 3. Personal data shall be adequate, relevant and not excessive in relation to the purpose or purposes for which they are processed. 4. Personal data shall be accurate and, where necessary, kept up to date. 5. Personal data processed for any purpose shall not be kept for longer than is necessary for that purpose 6. Personal data shall be processed in accordance with the rights of data subjects under the Data Protection Act 7. Appropriate technical and organisational measures shall be taken to prevent the unauthorised or unlawful processing of personal data and the accidental loss, destruction of or damage to personal data. 8. Personal data shall not be transferred to a country or territory outside the European Economic Area unless that country or territory ensures an adequate level of protection for the rights and freedoms of data subjects in relation to the processing of personal data. ( Taken from www.soac.co.uk) Influence in my own job role. I use this in my day to day job as I ensure that myself and all staff uphold confidentiality at all times. I ensure that records beloning to the service user are kept in their own homes and only them and any significant others have access to them. I also ensure that all staff including myself record any data regarding the tenant clearly and factually, and again this is kept in the tenants own home. SSSC Codes of practice. The Code of Practice for Social Service Workers describe the standards of professional conduct and practice required of social service workers as they go about their daily work. They describe that responsibilities if the employer towards the employee and the responsibilities of the employee themselves. Influence in my own job role I continually revise these codes of practice and adhere to them in my day to day life. I ensure that all support workers that I supervise have a good knowledge of these and also encourage them to continually revise them to gain a knowledge of these. My employer ensures that I have all the mandatory training that I need to enable me to carry out my job to the best of my ability and with the knowledge and skills to perform in an acceptable way. National care Standards. These are standards set by the government to ensure that all individuals in care are able to lead a fulfilling life. The 6 standards are: Choice Dignity Privacy Equality and Diversity Realising Potential Influence in my own job role I use these standards to influence the way I support my tenants. As I work in a supported living service, it is very easy to become insitutionalised by ‘doing everything’ for the tenant. By following the 6 main principles I ensure that the tenant can so as much as they can themselves. I support them to set goals for themselves and support them in their day to day life. The Disability Discrimination act 1995 The Disability Discrimination Act 1995 aims to end the discrimination that faces many people with disabilities. It now gives people with disabilities rights in the areas of: employment   education   access to goods, facilities and services, including larger private clubs and transport services buying or renting land or property, including making it easier for people with disabilities to rent property and for tenants to make disability-related adaptations functions of public bodies, for example issuing of licences The legislation requires public bodies to promote equality of opportunity for people with disabilities. It also allows the government to set minimum standards so that people with disabilities can use public transport easily (taken from www.nidirect.gov.uk) Influences in my own Job role: I continually adhere to this act in day to day life. I support tenants to gain employment and explain their own rights to them so that if they encounter any problems e,g gaining access to somewhere, then I will help them to take the steps required to change something and to be able to have easy access anywhere. The Mental Health act 2003 This act covers individuals with mental health problems who may need to be admitted to hospital due to health problems that may not be deemed as important to that individual due to their mental health problems. This can be done against their will if it in the individuals best interests. Influence in my own job role. As I work with a couple of individuals with mental health problems I have knowledge of this act and if that individual is suffering in any way, shape or form, I will ensure that I contact the relevant individuals to ensure the safety of the tenant is in my best interests. Adults with incapacity act 2000 This guide outlines who the Act can help and the arrangements that can be put in place to give others authority to act or make decisions for someone who lacks capacity to do so for him/herself. It explains what is meant by ‘incapacity’ and sets out the principles to be followed by everyone who is authorised to act on behalf of someone with incapacity. Influence in my job role I do not directly use this in my job role but I am aware of this as there are a couple of individuals who are deemed to not have capacity and they have family members who are welfare guardian and also financial appointees. I am aware the person appointed as welfare guardian can make decision about that individuals life, health etc over and above that individual as long as it is in the individuals best interests. Public services reform act 2010 This act ensures that all governed care companies are inspected by the SCSWIS to ensure that all rights of individuals in our care are upheld. Influence in my job role This influences me in my job role on a daily basis as, as a company we strive to better ourselves continually and work on improving our service that we deliver in adherence to the most recent inspection by SCSWIS. When there is an inspection I have involvement with this by either filling in staff questionnaires, supporting tenants to fill in service user questionnaires and also, if on shift, talking with the inspector.

Philosophy- Locke Hume and Kafka

1. Explain how Locke and Hume view personal identity, or the â€Å"Self†. How do you see Kafka’s â€Å"Metamorphosis† as exemplifying these philosophical themes? You may choose Locke or Hume or both, or argue why you see neither of their theories as showing up in Kafka’s work. Locke’s theory of personal identity does not rely on substance to explain personal identity. Locke’s theory is person one at time two is the same person as person two at time one if and only if person one and person two are both persons and person one can remember at time two (his doing) what person two did or felt or what have you at time one.Hume’s theory of the self-held that the self is nothing but a bundle of experiences or perceptions linked by the relations of causation and resemblance; or, more accurately, that the empirically warranted idea of the self is just the idea of such a bundle. In â€Å"Metamorphosis† Kafka takes on Locke’s view of the self. Kafka illustrates that Gregor Samsa is the same person as he was when he was human even though he has changed into a bug.Kafka does this by showing that Gregor still has the same thoughts, memories, and tries to continue the same routine even though he has become a bug. Gregor stills tries to wake up and catch the train for work, he still knows how his sister, parents, and boss will act, and he still has the same feelings and emotions towards his life and the people who are in it. All of these explain go along with Locke’s view of the self verses Hume’s theory.

Business Development Report Ikea pany †Free Samples

The IKEA pany was started in 1943 and started selling furniture in 1956. By 2007, the pany had already opened up different stores for its products in the various countries. The IKEA pany is based in Netherland and creates products regarding furniture and home appliances to make life at home better. Offering a full range of products with affordable prices and a better life for people is the vision of the pany. This is a pany that earns its money even before they spend it because of the make use of their resources and hence able to make future investments. IKEA offers quality products to people at fair prices, and they believe that, when people grow due to using the pany's products, the pany itself grows too. It has many locations globally that supply the furniture and home appliances to different parts of the world (Drzazga, 2014). The pany has also included the selling of houses and flats so as to reduce prices for the first time buyers. The IKEA products and furniture usually designed in Sweden but mostly manufactured in developed countries so as to cut costs whereby the final assembly is done by the consumers (Edvardsson & Enquist, 2011). Some of the IKEA petitors include; the Babyage that sells innovative products to make babies live richer and parents live easier. SHOP.CA sells online millions of goods across the world which include clothing, electronics, furniture, home appliances, jewelry, toys, video games, musical instruments and many other products. Move Loot is another petitor which is the easiest way to buy and sell online which include pick-up and delivery (Rask, 2014). The IKEA has different management styles which it applies in their operations such as autocracy style, democracy, laisse- fair, and lastly paternalistic management style. The world is changing globally because of the current technology, IKEA pany has been facing different challenges in the busy world because some markets, especially in USA stores, are located mainly in urban areas, and this has made the shopping to be difficult because people have busy schedules and the stores are not within their reach. Electronic shopping is an innovation that the pany is looking forward to developing even though they opted for Facebook and Twitter but it did not work, and hence they saw the opportunity to implement the e- shopping which is a digital marketing  (Drzazga, 2014). Electronic shopping is whereby people can buy and sell goods and services from a seller over the internet. People usually find the product or the service by searching in the website which displays its items online and then orders for delivery. Earlier this year, the IKEA pany was announced to launch an online shop for the customers in the Czech Republic whereby local consumers can be able to order the products online  (Hassan, Sistani, & Raju, 2014) The electronic shopping is important because it allows for peace of mind because there are secure payments that are done online. People can track their order and then select the necessary date for collection of their items. After the online shopping, the shoppers will have access to the online shopping experience. Also, online shopping leads to opening of many stores and outlets and pick up points for the online orders which are made accessible to customers at different destinations. This is a business model innovation that is used to describe the current business or future business model. This model contains questions that act as guidelines for the designing process of the business model  (Massa, 2013). The IKEA business model canvas is made up of harvesters, manufacturing firms, transport firms, delivery panies and the outfitting firms. Their aim is to design modular furniture, manufacture modular furniture, advertise and market and offer after sale services to its customers. They offer affordable and cheap home products to their clients; it's easy to assemble and transport the furniture and their experience to their clients on childcare on site, dining options and also the whole family experience. To their family, IKEA offers exclusive discounts, and for loyalty, the storage is in low costs assembling, and delivery is for free. The customer segments include the cost-conscious consumers, college students, and small businesses. The key resources are infrastructure regarding megastores, actual furniture, trucks, lifting equipment, tools and skilled personnel regarding labor. The channels for transportation are superstores, catalogs, family email subscriptions and IKEA stores website. The cost structure includes the raw material costs, manufacturing costs, advertising costs, labor costs and transportation costs. The revenue streams are the furniture sales, food sales at the restaurant, service fees through delivery and assemble and accessories sale through yarn, tools and towing equipment. The goal of the IKEA business model is to create value within the industry of home furnishing  (Euchner & Ganguly, 2014). In the past decade, people could not afford the best quality furniture because of their budget and the pany saw this need and created a variety of furniture with different sizes, culture and also prices. The pany usually focus on the customer by shortening the distance between the creation of the product and its selling point. And this often lowers the costs of the products. The pany does this by looking at the customers' needs, and this gives the information about the consumer and by doing this, they use this information to design the furniture that the client needs considering the space requirement. Different customers face different challenges regarding i e, and this makes the pany use low prices that the people can afford according to their i es. The pany looks at the tastes and preferences of the consumers so as to design the products that suit those prefer ences.   By doing this, better materials are used and useful techniques used. The model usually believes in the personal touch as pared to the name of the pany which was named after its founder, the village and the farm where he lived. The value of the enterprise is to have the customers assemble their furniture at home. The furniture is packaged in the way that is easier to transport with instructions on how to put them in place. The IKEA model requires time to time updates meaning that the furniture is changed from time to time. It takes the information that they receive from their customers, identifies any need arising and then makes changes to the design where necessary. mon sense and hard work is emphasized in this model and gives people a chance to change a house into a real home. Even though the resources of the people are limited, the IKEA business model continues to pay dividends to the people. The service by the name click and collect, many people have been able to select the items of interest online, pay through the credit cards and then have their orders shipped to their areas. The IKEA customers have demanded to make online buying, and the pany is happy because it has met peoples' desires. Online payments have been made even though in the first week after it was launched, people needed to pick their goods from the stores (Hassan, Sistani, & Raju, 2014). People are now able to get their orders delivered up to their door with an additional cost which depends on the cost of goods to be delivered and the IKEA branch bought from. The e-shopping has helped people to have access to a variety of items as the goods are arranged in such a way that the pany needs to see what people want to buy. The IKEAs catalog is necessary because it shapes consumers' behavior as people use it to see all the products and get any information or ideas from home and hence use it to make online orders (Euchner & Ganguly, 2014). People use the augmented reality application to place their furniture at home, see how it looks and how it fits the space available. In Swedish, IKEA will launch its electronic shopping business in Shanghai and start selling its products online by the end of August. All the furniture, home appliances, and accessories will be sold online except food and green plants. With this new shopping, people will be able to login to the IKEA website and then buy items through the portal, but both the online and offline products will have same prices and categories. By shopping online, the customers will be able to decide whether the goods will be delivered to their door or pick them from the stores. It also enables people to choose from a variety of products that are available  (UDDENFELDT, 2014). The prices of transport and pick up are all the same for the people who order from the shop regardless of the weight of the items. IKEA pany uses the electronic shopping so as to have a unique experience for its customers which is associated with the ability to feel and touch the products. The technological changes have contribute d to the launch of electronic shopping, and it has created a better everyday life for so many people. The aim of the pany is to build on their expansion story and expand their online presence so as to have a good relationship with their customers all over the world with a shopping experience. Due to this launch, IKEA has conducted services allowing for purchases to take place with set delivery dates that fit customers' needs and convenience whereby secure payments are made through the credit cards. The pany has also launched an e merce shopping in Saudi Arabia whereby customers just click purchase items, and they are delivered to their doorsteps. The e merce is currently being practiced in selected areas, but soon it will cover the whole region of Saudi Arabia. A marketing manager of Saudi Arabia says that it has been the fastest growing e merce market in the Middle East and North Africa. By 2018, the pany is planning to launch a modernized full-fledged e merce business because they see the ‘click and collect’ service as being temporary. IKEA has also launched a home delivery and online shopping in Australia where customers will be able to order online and then collect in store or receive a home delivery. For this reason, IKEA should encourage people to buy flat packed furniture online. Online shopping includes many services like picking and delivery and also assembling hence making shopping from home possible and convenient  (Hassan, Sistani, & Raju, 2014). Further, the management of the pany should market the e-shopping innovation at both global and domestic level to gain as many customers as possible. Also, the pany should establish petitive strategies to withstand the petitive pressure posed by petitors in the market; this will help the pany gain a petitive edge against its rivals. Lastly, the human resource management of IKEA should recruit only the qualified personnel who have the right skills of providing excellent online shopping services to the customers. Technology impacts significantly on the success and performance of a firm. Most panies have invested broadly in sophisticated technologies in the provision of services and products. Electronic shopping benefits both the customers and the panies using the technique. Doing electronic shopping is the best with the changing of the technology because it saves time as people just order for items they need and they are brought within their reach with prearranged delivery and assembly services. Therefore, panies should employ the right resources and invest heavily in online shopping for this will help them get petitive and position themselves firmly in the market. Aversa, P., Haefliger, S., Rossi, A., & Baden-Fuller, C. (2015). From business model to business modeling: Modularity and manipulation. In  Business models and modeling  (pp. 151-185).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Baier, D., Rese, A., & Schreiber, S. (2015). Analyzing Online Reviews to Measure Augmented   Ã‚   Reality Acceptance at the Point of Sale: The Case of IKEA. In  Successful Technological    Integration for petitive Advantage in Retail Settings  (pp. 168-189). IGI Global. De Marchi, V., Di Maria, E., & Ponte, S. (2013). The greening of global value chains: Insights from the furniture industry. petition & Change,  17(4), 299-31 Drzazga, M. (2014). New Media in Marketing munication in Multichannel Retailing.  Studia Ekonomiczne, (205), 23-33. Edvardsson, B., & Enquist, B. (2011). The service excellence and innovation model: lessons   from IKEA and other service frontiers.  Total Quality Management & Business   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Excellence,  22(5), 535-551.   Euchner, J., & Ganguly, A. (2014). Business model innovation in practice.  Research Technology Management,  57(6), 33-39. Gassmann, O., Frankenberger, K., & Csik, M. (2014). Revolutionizing the business model. In  Management of the fuzzy front end of innovation  (pp. 89-97). Springer International Publishing. Hassan, S. M., Sistani, A. J., & Raju, R. S. (2014). Top Online Shopping E panies and their Strength and Weakness (SWOT).  Research Journal of Recent Sciences. ISSN,  2277, 2502. Jonsson, A., & Foss, N. J. (2011). International expansion through flexible replication: Learning from the internationalization experience of IKEA.  Journal of International Business Studies,  42(9), 1079-1102. Massa, L., & Tucci, C. L. (2013). Business model innovation.  The Oxford Handbook of Innovation Management, 420-441. Oboyanskiy, A., & Shuvalova, M. (2017). A concept of applications in the electronic merce market.  Journal of Economics and Social Sciences, (9), 8. Rask, M. (2014). Internationalization through business model innovation: In search of relevant design dimensions and elements.  Journal of International Entrepreneurship,  12(2), 146- 161 Rese, A., Schreiber, S., & Baier, D. (2014). Technology acceptance modeling of augmented reality at the point of sale: Can surveys be replaced by an analysis of online   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   reviews?.  Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services,  21(5), 869-876. UDDENFELDT, J. (2014). How furniture shopping could change through Omni-channel retailing and the use of technology-based innovations. Urgal, B., Quintà ¡s, M. A., & Arà ©valo-Tomà ©, R. (2013). Knowledge resources and innovation performance: the mediation of innovation capability moderated by management mitment.  Technology Analysis & Strategic Management,  25(5), 543-565.8.

Sales Management of Moneybank Liechtenstein Essay

Sales Management of Moneybank Liechtenstein - Essay Example Due to the changing market conditions, the research, that is presented in this essay should be carried out by the salespersons, which will provide information on the type of products of Moneybank Liechtenstein that to be launched. This essay also provides several setbacks, that may be faced by the sales employees. Products such as loans, should take the larger fraction in the advertising platforms. That is because due to the changing economies and global markets, clients will not be able to save much into their accounts. Additionally, some clients will require requesting new loans to help in boosting of their falling businesses. The researcher states that Moneybank Liechtenstein should take this market niche to focus on the loan products. Nevertheless, this can be achieved with a growth in customer relationship to the set goals. The goals to be set will be divided into two types of individual goals and team goals. Then, the goals will be set on a basis of the firm's success and then presented in this essay. Areas of weakness should be targeted prevent any weak spots where the competitor can take advantage. It is stated that setting of goals will help workers overcome the negatives that affect them during their working period. They have to be self-confident and sales driven in order to increase the customer base in the new branch. It is also concluded that such reviews should be used to assess an employee job performance and productivity. To obtain perfect results, the appraisal should be done periodically.

Cultural Histories & Theories Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Cultural Histories & Theories - Essay Example (Musson, 159) Britain, the centre ÃŽ ¿f a world-wide empire, the greatest free-trade market, drawing on the whole globe for foodstuffs and raw materials and still also the largest exporter ÃŽ ¿f manufactures, was the hub ÃŽ ¿f world sea-borne trade: in the period before 1913 about 40 per cent ÃŽ ¿f that trade was with the UK, and over half ÃŽ ¿f it was carried in British ship. Thus British shipyards had huge home and overseas markets. Expansion ÃŽ ¿f production and trade was accompanied by changing industrial organization. Though many combined firms existed, were generally much bigger than woollen mills. The traditional small West Riding clothiers and the associated cloth-halls were declining, with the development ÃŽ ¿f larger-scale factory and mercantile organization and more direct trading relationships, though small firms and mills still abounded. However, the real problem, in fact, was that ÃŽ ¿f developing new industries alongside the old, while the latter still continued to grow profitably. It appears, however, that there were plenty ÃŽ ¿f savings and capital resources that might have been used for new industrial developments. British overseas investments or capital exports continued to grow prodigiously. Cotton is still the biggest manufacture in textile industry. (Sykas 2007) In the 1907 Census ÃŽ ¿f Production, the labour force in spinning and weaving factories increased from 331000 in 1850 to 577000 in 1907, while production and trade rose much more, as indicated by the figures ÃŽ ¿f raw cotton consumption and exports. Mechanization was carried further, not only with more mules, spindles and power-looms but larger, faster-running and more efficient machines, driven by more powerful and economical steam-engines. Fixed capital therefore grew more rapidly than the number ÃŽ ¿f worker, and productivity increased, especially in the first half ÃŽ ¿f this period.

Enterprise Architecture Q&A Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Enterprise Architecture Q&A - Assignment Example The business principle aims at ensuring that disruptions to the enterprise operations resulting from system interruptions are decreased. Therefore, technical architecture must provide users of the enterprise the capability to continue their business functions (Minoli, 2008). Hence, because the business principle is business continuity then the technical architecture is likely to adapt to ensure continuity of business function through capabilities established by the enterprise. When the business principle changes to maximize benefits of the enterprise, this ensures little fragmentation of the technical architecture while maximizing investment that serves enterprise-wide purpose as opposed to solutions that serve individual business units (Minoli, 2008). Because the business principle changed to maximize benefits, the technical architecture would now need to focus on priorities set by the entire enterprise to avoid duplication that can be expensive. In the above CRUD matrix, three processes are identified that include student registration, tutor support and coaching. Online registration provides information regarding the student that can be edited and accessed as needed. Tutor support and coaching enable a student to access the necessary course document while relating with the tutor

Study of a commercial Airline company (vigin Atlantic) Essay

Study of a commercial Airline company (vigin Atlantic) - Essay Example For the purpose, Virgin Atlantic along with Boeing 747 ran a biofuel commercial aircraft, successfully, for the first time in the world (Virgin Atlantic, 2007) from London’s Heathrow Airport to Amsterdam (reference). Richard Branson, the owner and founder of Virgin Atlantic owned a successful music records company – Virgin Records in the early eighties and ventured into the highly competitive airline service industry in 1984. The company brought revolutionary changes in terms of services offered to the customers and was the first company to offer personal TVs to their business class passengers. By the end of the decade, the company managed to become one of the leading airline companies in the world and had flown over a million passengers by the end of the 1980s. In the 1990s the company mostly focused on expansion activities - buying new planes, expanding its route network and even acquired a 49% stake in Singapore Airlines. Today the company is still capitalizing on its strengths by offering world class and revolutionary services to its passengers and is focused on implementing bio fuel technology to promote the environmental cause (Virgin Atlantic, 2008). Differentiation based on value, service and price: Virgin Atlantic differentiates its competitive strategy by leveraging its brand equity and placing itself as a premium airline company thus deviating from the oft repeated policy of price based differentiation. It offers premium services to its customers, which are creative and innovative and hence is one of the greatest strengths of the organization. Global appeal spanning wide range of customers: Virgin Atlantic caters to a wide range of customers from the economy to the business class offering varied services including complimentary meals amongst others. It also offers price differentiation according to the time of

Career Development of Muslim Women Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Career Development of Muslim Women - Essay Example The research design that is selected for the study is an exploratory research design, in order to understand the things deeply. As explained by Zechmeister et al., (1997) survey research represents a general approach to be used when the research design is implemented. Survey research is the method of gathering data from respondents thought to be representative of some population using an instrument composed of close structure or open-ended items (questions). It is one of the most dominant forms of data collection in the social sciences gives for the proficient collection of data over broad populations, agreeable to self-administration, administration in person, by telephone, via email, and on the internet. The primary data is to be collected by conducting field research that involves face to face interviews, surveys, questionnaires and focused group interviews. Primary research involves the use of primary data for the collection of data. Primary data are that information that is collected for the first time. The primary research will be especially useful since it will provide a guideline to the most current data available on this topic from Muslim women who are about to reach either supervisory or managerial positions and also from female who are about to enter the workforce. This will help to give an idea about what challenges they face and how they feel they will compare themselves with foreigners in the workplace. There are many advantages that have been identified in the use of the survey method.

Advertising principles and strategy Research Paper

Advertising principles and strategy - Research Paper Example This paper explores print advertisements for motor homes, caravans, and camping. In the exploration, the paper compares five different advertisements for the similar product in terms of research into the product, its competition, target audience, and relevance of presenting product and brand to their audience. Moreover, the paper would analyze each chosen advertisement by looking at the relevant of the idea of sustainability. The five advertisements identified in this paper would be analyzed and critiqued through their strategies by using the Bernbach’s ROI model. This model devotes itself to maintaining high standards of an advertisement (Horn 2006, p. 4). The print adverts explored in this paper are the caravan world magazine, the caravan world yearbook, camper trailer Australia, caravanning and motorhome magazine, and caravanning Australia magazine. Each of these print adverts has specific characteristics that distinguish it from the others. 2. Analysis a. Winnebago caravan This advert promotes caravans made by this company that could be used for hiking. The target audience of the advert is the group of individuals aged between 25 years and 50 years especially those with small kids. It does this through the notion of caravan parking at any place where the children and adults can have fun. For an advert to be effective, it has to be relevant to the target audience. The message in the advert is very relevant to the target audience. This is because it informs the audience on the strength of the product, which is the ability to be conveniently parked at any place. The advert has an inter mix of colors and natural features. According to Besser (2005, p. 3), pictures of natural features and other attractive sites unfolds unique history that can result to a distinguished form of attractiveness. However, attractiveness of features depends on the target audience. The color and features used in this advert is very relevant to the target audience. This is becaus e the group of people with the age bracket of 25 years and 50 years are highly attracted by colors and natural features. However, the advert fails in terms of originality and sustainability. The advert contains several features, varied groups of individuals, various font types, and a company logo. This makes the advert to be somehow confusing thus unsustainable and unoriginal despite its uniqueness. Moreover, it is large with a lot of words and statements. This makes the advert not to be memorable among the target audience despite have a message that resonates with the target audience. However, the advert is visually arresting due to its multi-featured and multi-colored nature. The advert can change the way consumers view the product although its impact is greatly hindered by unclearness. b. Winnebago tent This advert advertises a tent that can be used for adventurous camping. According to Consterdine (2005, p. 6), the essential strength of print media especially magazines in advert isement it the way readers chose and use the information they obtain. The target audience for the advert is the population of men and women aged between 18 years and 40 years through the notion of river bank camping. Information provided by the advert is somehow relevant to the target audience. However, the pictures on the advert and the colors used in the advert are ambiguous and not clear. It is somehow difficult for an individual in the target audien

Number grid Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Number grid - Essay Example Upper Left No. UL*LR UR*LL Difference 1 23 63 40 26 1248 1268 40 33 1815 1855 40 48 3360 3400 40 55 4235 4275 40 62 5208 5248 40 78 7800 7840 40 TABLE 2 As the table indicates, no matter where we place the square in the grid the difference in the product of the corners for a 3 x 3 square is always 40. Table 3 below are the results of a square that is 4 x 4 placed randomly on the grid. Upper Left No. UL*LR UR*LL Difference 1 34 124 90 17 850 940 90 24 1368 1458 90 36 2484 2574 90 41 3034 3124 90 53 4558 4648 90 67 6700 6790 90 TABLE 3 As the table indicates, no matter where we place the square in the grid the difference in the product of the corners for a 4 x 4 square is always 90. Table 4 below are the results of a square that is 5 x 5 placed randomly on the grid. Upper Left No. UL*LR UR*LL Difference 1 45 205 160 16 960 1120 160 23 1541 1701 160 35 2765 2925 160 42 3612 3772 160 56 5600 5760 160 TABLE 4 As the table indicates, no matter where we place the square in the grid the difference in the product of the corners for a 5 x 5 square is always 160. Table 5 below are the results of a square that is 6 x 6 placed randomly on the grid. Upper Left No. UL*LR UR*LL Difference 1 56 306 250 15 1050 1300 250 23 1794 2044 250 23 1794 2044 250 21 1596 1846 250 32 2784 3034 250 45 4500 4750 250 41 3936 4186 250 TABLE 5 As the table indicates, no matter where we place the square in the grid the difference in the product of the corners for a 6 x 6 square is always 250. Table 6 below are the results of a square that is 7 x 7 placed randomly on the grid. Upper...This is true for a 2 x 2 square and all other sizes. However, the difference in the product of the corners is dependent upon the size of the square. As the size of the square gets larger, the difference in the product of the corners also increases. But is there an algebraic relationship between the size of the square and the difference of the product of the corners Can we calculate the difference by knowing the size of the square Table 10 lists the results from the previous investigations. As we have seen, no matter what size square is used, we can use algebra to calculate the number of possible squares and the difference in the product of their corners. This applies to all possible combinations placed on the grid.

Philosophy of Counseling Essay Example for Free

Philosophy of Counseling Essay The purpose of the school counseling program is to guarantee academic, social, and professional success among all students. School counseling is s collaborative relationship between students, school counselors, teachers, parents, administrators, and the community. Through these partnerships, the counseling program will develop a support system to enhance student achievement and promote growth of future productive citizens. The role of the school counselor is very active. School counselors must be an assertive advocate by creating opportunities for all students to foster their dreams and achieve their goals. A dedicated counselor plays a major role in the school through research, data, collaboration, individual counseling, group counseling, career planning, and caring for the students overall well being. The school counselor serves as a leader and team member; working with parents and school personnel to make sure that each student succeeds. Human nature can be viewed as all individuals are considered equally good. People are creatures of habit and learn from their cultural upbringings and the ones around them. Now days, students deal with poverty, single-parent households, thoughts of suicide, neglect, abuse and so much more. In this complex society, it is necessary to provide learning experiences which will empower the child to overcome life challenges and set achievable goals. Goals can be reached by change. I feel an individual can change through awareness and influence. Students have to want to change and be aware that there is a need for change. The role of the professional school counselor is to support and influence the student. Change is achievable by tracking data and giving constructive feedback. The counselor will assist student in their academic, social, emotional and personal change and help to decide the best ways to successfully achieve their goals. Disaggregating data is the foundation for the school counseling program. The use of these resources will track student progress and provide evidence for growth. Data also helps the school counselor understand what is and is not working in the counseling program. If a student is not successful then we are not providing the correct interventions for that particular student. The changing needs of students, families and schools require professional school counselors who are current with new counseling programs. These programs must focus of students academic, career, and personal/ social needs. I feel as society changes that the students are setting the new goals for the counseling program. It is essential for the school counselor to foster and set realistic achievable goals for the student.

Balanced Diet for an Adult Essay Example for Free

Balanced Diet for an Adult Essay Food is an integral part of human life providing energy for cellular activities to keep us healthy. According to World Health Organization (2013), healthy nutrition is ingesting an adequate and well balanced diet in relation to the body’s dietary needs and when combined with regular physical activities is the cornerstone to good health. A diet containing the right portions of all the five food groups of the Eatwell Plate (figure1 and appendix1 for recommended servings) known as a balanced diet will provide the organic macronutrients including proteins, carbohydrates and lipids and the micronutrients, vitamins and minerals to sustain life. Only ingested carbohydrates, proteins and lipids will count towards total caloric intake and will be digested into monomers like glucose for absorption and assimilation. National Health Service (2012) recommends daily caloric intake of 2500Kcal and 2000Kcal which will be derived from the proteins, lipids and carbohydrate sources in a diet for average adult males and females respectively. Age, sex, health condition and physical activities influence dietary needs. This essay will discuss a balanced diet for an adult including the structure, sources, functions, recommended daily allowance (RDAs), deficiency and excessive effects of the macronutrients. Also the micronutrients and water which are not considered as nutrients will be discussed. THE FOOD PYRAMID [pic]Figure1 (NHS 2011) Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. British Nutrition Foundation (2013), recommends that 47.7% (203g) and 48.5% (275g) of daily energy should come from carbohydrates for females and males respectively with 29g being roughages. Carbohydrates exist naturally or refined as monosaccharides that are reducing sugars. Monosaccharides build the complex carbohydrates, disaccharides and polysaccharides through dehydration synthesis. Monosaccharides have general formula (CH2O)n where ‘n’ determines whether pentose(5Carbons) or hexose (6Carbons). Glucose found in maple syrup, fructose in corn syrup and galactose in honey are hexose-isomers; having the same formula, C6H12O6 but different structures. The disaccharides with the general formula C12H22O11 are sucrose made from fructose and glucose, maltose from two glucose molecules and lactose from galactose and glucose. Sucrose is derived from beet sugar, lactose from milk and maltose from vinegar. The polysaccharides with general formula (C6H10O5)n where 40≠¤n≠¤3000, exist as starch or non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs) which can be soluble or insoluble. Starch consists of glucose molecules joined by glycosidic bonds. The NSPs include oligosaccharide (raffinose) and cellulose (dietary fibre). Potatoes, yams and cassava are rich in starch and are very digestible. Whole grain cereals, legumes (appendix2), fruits and storage vegetables like asparagus and cabbage are rich in the NSPs. Raffinose is an indigestible trisaccharide of fructose,glucose and galactose with formula C18H32O16. Animal sources of carbohydrates are liver and scallops. Carbohydrates provide sweetness and are the primary source of energy especially for brain and blood cells. Cellular respiration converts glucose monomers into ATP. Fats cannot be oxidised without glucose. Most NSPs are partially digestible or indigestible due to lack of ÃŽ ±-galactosidae (enzyme) in GI Tract. They reduce glycaemia index and plasma cholesterol levels, increase bile acid excretion, promote normal laxation and prevent breast cancer, gallstones, haemorrhoids, and irritable bowel syndrome (Kumar et all 2012). Furthermore, Kumar (2012) concluded that excessive carbohydrates will cause dental decay, kidney damage, stroke, diabetes due to obesity and short term conditions like hyperglycaemia. Carbohydrate deficiency will cause constipation, fatigue, weak immunity, muscle cramps and ketosis; this is very rare as 50g/day of carbohydrate is needed to prevent ketosis. THE DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS TO FORM MALTOSE [pic]Figure2 EQUATION: (C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 = C12H22O11 + H2O) (Marshall University 2012) Proteins or polypeptides consist of three to 100000 or more long chains of the organic molecules called amino acids joined together by covalent peptide bonds. A protein of two amino acids is called a dipeptide. There are 20 common forms of amino acids either termed non-essential (synthesised by the liver) and essential that needs to be ingested. Proteins consist of a central carbon atom, a hydrogen atom, amino group (-NH2), Carboxylic group (-COOH) and the variable R group (figure3). The term amino acid is derived from the amino and carboxylic groups that all amino acids have in common. According Kuil (2012), principal sources of proteins are lean meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, cereals, legumes (refer to appendix3), cereals and processed food like low-fat milk. Proteins form about 45% of human body and perform the following seven essential functions: structural (hair, ligaments), contractile (muscles), transport (haemoglobin), metabolic regulation (enzymes), buffering, defence (antibodies) and coordination and control (hormones) (Martini 2006). Haemoglobin transports oxygen and a lack of protein (haemoglobin) can deny vital organs the needed oxygen for metabolism. Protein deficiency can also cause fatigue, anaemia, weak immunity, skin problems, impairment of cognition and mental health problems. Whereas excessive proteins can cause obesity, osteoporosis and kidney stones (Georgetown University 2012). About 15% of an adults’ caloric intake should come from protein equivalent to 56g and 46g for male and female respectively (Centre for Diseases Control and Prevention, 2012). DEHYDRATION OF AMINO ACIDS TO FORM DIPEPTIDE PROTEINS [pic]Figure3 (Marshall University 2012) Lipids are made up of an even number of carbon from 12 to 20, oxygen, hydrogen and sometimes traces of phosphorus, sulphur or nitrogen. Lipids are grouped into 4: steroids, phospholipids, waxes and glycerides. Most of the 70 identified lipids are synthesised by the body whereas linoleic (omega6) and alpha-linolenic (omega3) acids are two essential lipids to be ingested. They are mostly insoluble due to the long chain of hydrophobic carbon-carbon end bonded to a short hydrophilic carboxyl group. The double covalent bond, (C=C) determines whether saturated (no C=C) or monounsaturated (1 C=C) or polyunsaturated (2 or more C=C). Glycerides are made up of glycerol bonded to 1 or more fatty acids by dehydration synthesis, triglyceride with 3 fatty acids is the predominant of the lipids (refer figure4). Unsaturated sources of lipids are olive oil, peanut, salmon, halibut and avocados. Saturated sources are butter, sausage and hydrogenated oil. According to British Dietetic Association (2013), adults should consume not more than 20-30g of saturated-fat with 5g or less being trans-fat since saturated lipids are high in cholesterol. The structural lipids form cell membranes. Also fat cushions and protects organs including liver, heart, and kidney, energy source; twice as much as carbohydrates and proteins, thermoregulation (insulation), sex hormones, transport vitamins and monounsaturated fat can decrease cholesterol levels (USA Department of Agriculture, 2010). Excessive consumption of lipids will lead to obesity which is characterised by high BMI as shown in appendix 2, cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, colorectal cancer and diabetes, whereas deficiency will result in the body lacking the vital vitamins A,D,E and K (Schenker, 2012). DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS TO FORM TRIGLYCERIDE [pic]Figure4 (Marshall University 2012) The micronutrients, vitamins and minerals are needed in minute quantities. Minerals can be classified as major or trace of which a few are essential including sodium, potassium, magnesium, zinc, iron, calcium, iodine, etc. (refer to appendix4 for RDAs). According to Higdon and Drake (2011), sources of minerals are plants that derive them from the soil and move on the food chain to the herbivores like cattle that eat them. Spinach, legumes, whole grains, dairy products, red meat, soybeans, salmon, cod, iodised table salt (iodine, sodium, chlorine) and eggs are excellent sources of minerals. According to Whitley and Rolfes (2011), minerals perform the following functions: the electrolytes, sodium, potassium and chlorine transmit nerve impulses, control fluid balance (providing optimum pH for enzyme activities), control blood pressure and relax and contract muscles. Zinc, copper and selenium are antioxidants; they reduce the risk of heart diseases. Iron forms haemoglobin. Sodium and potassium coregulate ATP production. Calcium and phosphorus control blood clotting and together with magnesium build bones, teeth, maintain muscle and nerve cells. Iodine is needed for the production of thyroxin; deficiency will cause goitre. Since some minerals are coenzymes, deficiency will cause malfunctioning cellular activities (digestion, metabolism). Iron deficiency causes anaemia whereas calcium, phosphorus and magnesium (hypocalcaemia) deficiency will cause osteoporosis. Calcium, magnesium and the electrolytes deficiencies will cause weakness, muscle cramps and impaired alertness. Zinc deficiency causes diarrhoea, skin and prostate cancers. Their intake should be balanced with use and excretion as excess may cause Hyperkalaemia (potassium), kidney-stones (calcium) and hypernatremia (sodium). Vitamins are grouped into water soluble (WSV) including C and B complex vitamins; they cannot be stored and therefore, it is imperative to be part of a balanced diet, and fat soluble (FS) including vitamins K,E,D, and A; they can be stored (refer appendix 5 for RDA). Green leafy vegetables (lettuce), oranges, kiwi fruit, avocados, whole grains and cereals, banana, dairy products, liver, poultry, pork, oily fish, eggs, soybeans, chickpeas and nuts are excellent sources of the vitamins (Firth 2011). Vitamin K can be synthesised in the intestine which helps the blood clot whereas Vitamin D can be synthesised by the body using sunlight to help the absorption of calcium and phosphorus (Cranney et al (2010). Vitamins A and C build immunity. Vitamins B1,B2,B3, and biotin help release energy. Vitamin A, niacin and pantothenic acid aid the absorption and use of macronutrients monomers. Vitamin C makes collagen and enhances folate absorption. Vitamin deficiency generally causes weak immunity and osteoporosis (Vitamin D), scurvy (Vitamin C), beriberi (B1), anaemia (B12 and folate) and night blindness (Vitamin A). Excessive amounts of vitamins E and K are usually not harmful but excess A,D and the WSV which can be excreted cause kidney problems and hypercalcaemia (excess D). Excessive vitamin C causes diarrhoea (NHS 2012). In conclusion, spending excessively on supplements and creams as well as engaging in dangerous diets like the Atkins Diet are not necessary. The secret to healthy living is carefully selecting the right proportions of food from the Eatwell plate, drinking enough water in combination with regular exercises. Figure 5 and appendix 6 show functions of water. Consider the positives and negatives when selecting food products such as red meat; rich in protein but high in cholesterol whereas fatty fish enhances calcium absorption. Soybean, liver, green leafy vegetables, whole grains and legumes will provide almost all the nutrients; combine them in your diet in right proportions for optimal hormonal, metabolic, mental and physical functions of the body. It is important to consult a doctor before starting any diet as nutritional needs are affected by health and some medications affect absorption of nutrients. FUNCTIONS OF WATER IN THE BODY [pic]Figure 5 Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 2013 LIST OF APPENDIXES APPENDIX 1 |FOOD GROUP |SERVINGS PER DAY | |Carbohydrates including bread, pasta, rice, potatoes and other starchy foods |6-10 servings | |Fruits and vegetables |3-5 servings | |Meat, fish, eggs, beans and nuts |2-3 servings | |Milk and dairy foods |2-3 servings | |Food and drinks high in fat and/or in sugar |Use sparingly | University of Michigan Integrative Medicine, 2010 APPENDIX 2: OBESITY AND BODY MASS INDEX (BMI) |BMI |LEVEL OF OBESITY | |Below 18.5 |Underweight | |From 18.5-24.9 |Healthy Range | |From 25-30 |Pre Obese | |Above 30 |Obese | NHS, 2012 APPENDIX 3: FOOD GROUPS AND EXAMPLES |FOOD GROUP |EXAMPLES | |Legumes |Beans, Lentils, Peas, Chickpeas, French beans, Kidney , soybeans, Coco beans etc. | |Whole grains |Barley, Corn, Millet, Oats, Rice, Milo, Wheat | |Green leafy vegetables |Spinach, Broccoli, Lettuce, Cabbage, Mustard green, Kale examples | APPENDIX 4: MINERALS AND THEIR RDA |SYMBLE |SOURCES |RDA | |Na (Sodium) |Table Salt, Sea vegetables, spinach, milk |6g | |Ca (Calcium) |Salmon, Sardine, eggs, dairy products, nuts, oregano |700mg | |K (Potassium) |Spinach, legumes, tomatoes, banana, avocado, whole grains and |3500mg | | |yams | | |P (Phosphate) |Fish, poultry, oats, rice, red meat, |700mg | |Fe (Iron) |Eggs, spinach, shrimps, soybeans, lentils, tomatoes, olives, |M=8.7mg / F=4.8mg | | |tomatoes | | |Mg (Magnesium) |Spinach, soybean, sea vegetables, tomatoes, beans, brazil nuts|M=300mg / F=270mg | |I (Iodine) |Eggs, milk, fish, shellfish, yoghurt, strawberries, iodised |0.14mg | | |salt | | |Se (Selenium) |Cod, salmon, garlic, lamb, cheese, calf liver, barley, brazil |75mcg | | |nuts | | |Zn (Zinc) |Calf liver, spinach, eggs, oats, oyster, lean pork and beef, |M=5.5-9.5mg / F=4-7mg | | |asparagus | | USA Department of Agriculture / Department of Health, 2010 APPENDIX 5: VITAMINS AND THEIR RDA’S |VITAMIN |SOURCES |RDA | |Retinol (A) |Liver, fish oil, carotenoids, milk fortified |M=0.7mg / F=0.6mg | |Ascorbic acid (C) |Citrus (oranges), kiwi fruit, broccoli |40mg | |Thiamin (B1) |Liver, pork, whole grains and products |M=1mg / F=0.8mg | |Riboflavin (B2) |Liver, eggs, milk, rice, mushrooms |M=1.3mg / F=1.1mg | |Niacin (B3) |Poultry, fish, beef, peanut butter, legumes |M=17mg / F=13mg | |Pyridoxine (B6) |Liver, pork, legumes, fish, whole grains |M=1.4mg / F=1.2mg | |Cobalamin (B12) |Beef, poultry, cod, salmon, cheese, eggs |0.0015mg | |Vitamin E |Vegetable oil, green vegetables, nuts |12mg | |Folate |Broccoli, peas, asparagus, brown rice |0.2mg | |Pantothenic acid |Milk, fruits, veggies, meat, fish, grains |10mg | |Biotin |Cottage cheese, liver, eggs, peanut, grain |300mcg | |Vitamin K |Green vegetables, fruits, nuts |75mg | |Note that Vitamin K can be synthesised in the intestine whereas Vitamin D can be derived salmon, fortified cereals and juices, milk and | |sunlight (No RD A but 15minutes in the sun thrice a week is enough) | USA Department of Agriculture / Department of Health, 2010 APPENDIX 6: RECOMMENDED DAILY ALLOWANCE FOR WATER |SEX |RDA FOR WATER | |MALE |3.7L with no upper limit increase with exercise to rehydrate | |FEMALE |2.7L with no upper limit increase with exercise to rehydrate and increase intake when | | |breast feeding. | INSTITUTE OF MEDICENE 2004 REFERENCE LIST ONLINE âž ¢ British Dietetic Association (2013) Food fact sheet: cholesterol [Online] Available from: http://www.bda.uk.com/foodfacts/cholesterol.pdf [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. âž ¢ British Nutrition Foundation (2013) Confusion on fat and heart health [Online]. Available from: http://www.nutrition.org.uk/nutritioninthenews/headlines/fats [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. âž ¢ Centre for Diseases Control and Prevention (2012) Nutrition for everyone: Protein [Online] Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/nutrition/everyone/basics/protein.html [Accessed on 19/12/2013]. âž ¢ Cranney et al, (2007) Effectiveness and safety of vitamin D in relation to bone health [Online] Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18088161?dopt=Abstract [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. âž ¢ Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board. (2004) Dietary reference intakes: Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride and Sulphate. Washington DC: Institute of Medicine. [Online]. Available from: www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Dietary-Reference-Intakes-Water-Potassium- [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. âž ¢ Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board (2010) Dietary reference intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. Washington DC: Institute of Medicine. [Online]. Available from: http://www.iom.edu/~/media/Files/Report%20Fil.pdf [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. âž ¢ Marshall University (2012) [Online] Available from: http://science.marshall.edu/murraye/alpha_amylase.htm [Accessed on 18/02/2013]. âž ¢ Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research [no date] Nutrition and healthy eating: functions of water in the body. [Online] Available from: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/medical/IM00594 [Accessed on 19/02/2013]. âž ¢ National Health Service (2011) [Online] Available from: http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/Goodfood/Pages/eatwell-plate.aspx [Accessed on 17/02/2013]. âž ¢ National Health Service (2011) [Online] Available from: http://www.nhs.uk/chq/Pages/3215.aspx?CategoryID=51 [Accessed on 17/02/2013]. âž ¢ National Health Service (2012) [Online] Available from: http://www.nhs.uk/chq/Pages/1126.aspx?CategoryID=51SubCategoryID=164 [Accessed on 17/02/2013]. âž ¢ United States of America. Department of Agriculture/Department of Health and Human Services (2010), Dietary guidelines for Americans, Washington DC: US Government Printing Office. [Online] Available from: http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2010/DietaryGuidelines2010.pdf [Accessed: 19/02/2013]. âž ¢ University of Michigan Integrative Medicine (2010) Healing foods pyramid [Online] Available from: http://www.med.umich.edu/umim/food-pyramid/fats.htm [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. âž ¢ World Health Organisation (2013) [Online] Available from: http://www.who.int/topics/nutrition/en/ [Accessed: 17/02/2013]. ONLINE JOURNALS âž ¢ Kumar et all (2012) Dietary roles of non-starch polysaccharides in human nutrition: a review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, Volume 52(10). [Online] Available from: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10408398.2010.512671?url_ver=Z39.88-2003rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.orgrfr_dat=cr_pub%3dpubmed. [Accessed on 23/02/2013]. âž ¢ Schenker S. (2012). UK recommendations for dietary fat: should they be reassessed in light of the recent FAO/WHO recommendations? Nutrition Bulletin, 37(1), pp. 37-46. [Online] Available from: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-3010.2011.01946.x/full [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. BOOKS âž ¢ Firth L. (2011) Nutrition and diet. Issues 205, Cambridge: Independence Educational Press. âž ¢ Higdon, J. and Drake, V. J. (2011) An evidenced-based approach to vitamins and minerals: health benefits and intake recommendation. 2nd Edition. New York: Thieme. âž ¢ Kuil W. A D. (2012) Sources of dietary protein and risk of hypertension in a general Dutch population, British Journal of Nutrition, 108 (10), pp. 1897-1903. âž ¢ Martini F. H. (2006) Fundamentals of anatomy and physiology. 7th Edition. San Francisco: Pearson Education. pp. 39-58. âž ¢ Whitney, E. and Rolfes S. R. (2011) Understanding nutrition. 12th Edition. Belmont: Wadsworth. BIBLIOGRAPHY ONLINE âž ¢ British Dietetic Association (2013) Food fact sheet: sugar [Online] Available from: http://www.bda.uk.com/foodfacts/Sugar.pdf [Accessed on 20/02/02013] âž ¢ Georgetown University (2012) Proteins: what does it do? [Online] Available from: http://www.georgetown.edu/admin/auxiliarysrv/dining/nutrition/protein.html [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. âž ¢ Stoner, L et al (2012) Preventing a Cardiovascular Disease Epidemic among Indigenous Populations through Lifestyle Changes. [Online] Available from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3354392/ [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. BOOKS âž ¢ Blomhoff R, et al. Health benefits of nuts: potential role of antioxidants. British Journal of Nutrition. 2006; 96. âž ¢ New Zealand. Ministry of Health (2003), Food and nutrition guideline for healthy adults: a background paper, Wellington: Ministry of Health. âž ¢ Rolfes, S. R. et al (2009) Understanding normal and clinical nutrition. 8th Edition. Belmont: Wadsworth. ONLINE VIDEOS âž ¢ Dairy: essential nutrition or health saboteur? – Keon, J. (2011) [Online video]. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cp9MwjW5QX0 [Accessed on 20/02/2013]. âž ¢ Good nutrition made easy: how to grow a healthy adult Davidson, L. (2012) [Online video]. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6qAeAzreESg [Accessed on 20/02/2013].

Use Of Green Building Constructions Environmental Sciences Essay

Use Of Green Building Constructions Environmental Sciences Essay India is the Seventh largest country in the world and it has population of 1.24 billion as of 2012 according to World Population Review 2012. As of 2012 India experienced a growth of 5.5% in its Gross Domestic Product (Money Control, 2012). In the same year, the Construction industry Experienced a growth of 6.6%. During the year 2011, construction industry was valued at Rs.18.5 trillion (Reportlinker, 2012). Indian Green Building Council was started on 2001 by Confederation of Indian Industry. The aim of this council is to increase green building construction in India and to make India one of the leaders in green buildings of the world. Benefits from green buildings can be both tangible and intangible . Most important benefit from construction of green buildings are reduction in usage of water and energy costs during the construction of building. The tangible benefits by using green buildings are saving water sources at 30-50% and energy sources by 20-30%. The intangible benefits in construction of green buildings are clear vision of day lighting, health and wellbeing of the occupants, conservation of national resources and enhanced air and marketability of the project (Indian Green Building Council,2008). Indian Green Building Council is a system designed for rating residential buildings which include Gated communities, Residential apartments, Retrofitting of residential buildings with accordance to Indian Green Buildings Council (Indian Green Building Council, 2008). The increased growth in economic activities of any country is causing pressure on environmental and natural resources. There is evidence that an irreversible damage is caused to global environment due to human activities, which have an impact on quality of life for future generations. This concern for environment due to global warming has caused governments to search for sustainable solutions. In India, the real estate industry is the main contributor for global warming due to emission of greenhouse gases released due to energy use from buildings. Hence, there is a necessity for developing sustainable green buildings and technologies in the construction industry. Compared to the world average growth of 5.2% in construction industry, India is growing rapidly with a rate of 10% and also 20% of total electricity is consumed by buildings in India (Lang and Meghraj, 2008). This shows that it is a great opportunity to instigate construction of green buildings or sustainable buildings in the country. In some cases developers have to face a lot of challenges since construction of green buildings will cost a lot for some cases. Green Buildings Development: Sustainable development is often defined as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Brundtland, 1987). Sustainable development is conceptually divided into three types. They are Economic Sustainability, Social Sustainability and Environment Sustainability (John Elkington, 1999). Performance of industrial economy is always been measured by financial outcome. Striking a balance between the above three constituent parts will be a key in achieving sustainable development. In India real estate industry is the major energy consumers and Greenhouse Gas emitters. 38% of global energy is being consumed by real estate industry and almost 3,800 tonnes of greenhouse gas is emitted every year, according to a report done by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change in the year 1996. This report has not included usage of any other resources such as water. Due to increased global warming, depleted sources and consumer pressures had pushed the need for sustainability in construction industry secto r (Lang and Meghraj, 2008). Sustainability in construction industry is not limited to energy conservation also includes resource usage, working conditions and also neighbour surroundings. This situation has given rise to development of sustainable buildings. The green building usually emphasises reduction of environmental impacts on a integrated approach to land, construction strategies and building uses in a sustainable way. Usually a green building uses less amount of energy, natural resources and water when compared to other normal building. By construction of sustainable buildings less amount of construction waste is generated and it also helps in providing healthier environment for people living in it. Green buildings have sustainable features like sufficient use of water, energy and eco-friendly environment, usage of recycled materials, renewable energy, landscapes, effective building and control management systems (Lang and Meghraj, 2008). The benefits of sustainable building usually depend on the extent at which they are used during the planning and design state. A green building will be successful only if it is included starting from the design state. The considerations that are taken into account in design of green building are supply chain starting from material sourcing, recycled resource use, civic amenities, modelling of energy and finally waste disposal for occupiers education. Sustainable Buildings in India: In India, green building movement started with establishment of Indian Green Building Council in 2001, which was started by CII (Confederation of Indian Industries). The first sustainable building was constructed on July 14 2004 at Hyderabad named as CII-Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre (Lang and Meghraj, 2008). In India there are about 18 LEED certified green buildings with an area of about 110 million sq ft by the end of 2007 (CII-Energy Efficiency in Building Design and construction, 2010). In India, the construction industry is considered to be one of the biggest emitter of Greenhouse Gases. 20-25% of consumed electricity by government buildings is being wasted due to incapable design, according to a report submitted by Ministry of power in June 2004. This is the same scenario in private sector. Merits and Cost of Sustainable Buildings In India: The main difference between normal and green buildings are that green buildings have improved indoor environment and also operational savings. The economic advantages of green buildings will not be visible immediately, since the lifetime payback is higher compared to that of normal buildings which mainly come from cost savings, reduced carbon emission and higher capital or rental values. The social advantages are due to increased green buildings in the environment. It also helps in increasing tenants and decrease their health problems due to better working condition. In India, the payback of platinum rated building will range from 5 to 7 years where as gold rated and silver rated building have a period of 3 to 4 years (Lang and Meghraj, 2008). The common notion among Indian developers is that construction of green buildings is costlier when compared to normal buildings and it will take a long time to get payback on sustainable buildings. This reason is due to mainly following: green buildings are still in the stage of developing, not having enough technical information on green buildings, execution of sustainable buildings are still inept, preferring short returns instead of focusing on life term returns (Lang and Meghraj, 2008). Cost Premium of Green buildings in India ranges from 6-18%, it depends on the ratings (Confederation of Indian Industry, 2008). There are green building rating systems which give information about changes, effort by the owners invested on achieving a good performance sustainable building and environmental benefits of the land. The sustainable building rating systems are as follows: BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method, used mostly in UK) LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, used mostly in US) Green Star (Used mostly in Australia and New Zealand have their own type of Green Star) NABERS (National Australian Built Environment Rating System) LEED in India by Indian Green Building Council GRIHA (Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment) Cost Analysis of Green buildings: In words of Greg Kats Principal of capital (a consultancy focusing on clean energy), he says that there is big difference between operating cost and capital cost of sustainable building. Why Did I Chose Green Building Constructions and Their Cost Efficiency in India: Most people in India know about Green Buildings, but dont know the procedure how to start and what are the methods to be taken care in starting a sustainable construction. We have lack of information on Sustainable buildings and Government of India must educate people on sustainable buildings. Construction of green buildings started in India recently during the year 2004 until then people where constructing residential buildings, non-residential buildings including government buildings in normal ways. My aim in choosing this topic is to show that even though green buildings are costly but in lifetime they can get their payback and also provide healthy environment to neighbours and occupants. Government should help in providing financial help for constructing sustainable buildings in India.

J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Hobbit, a Fantasy Epic Essay -- Tolkien Hobbit Es

J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Hobbit, a Fantasy Epic    "Long ago in my grandfather Thror's time our family was driven out of the far North. . . . It had later been discovered by my far ancestor, Thrain the Old, they mined and they tunnelled and they made huger halls and greater workshops-and in addition I believe they found a good deal of gold and a great many jewels too. Anyway, they grew immensley rich and famous, and my grandfather was King under the Mountain again. . . . Undoubtedly that was what brought the dragon. Dragons steal gold and jewels, you know. . . . There was a most specially greedy strong and wicked worm called Smaug. . . . [W]ell, from a good way off we saw the dragon settle on our mountain in a spout of flame. . . . and has been there ever sense. . . . we have never forgotten our stolen treasure. . . . we still mean to get it back, and to bring our curses home to Smaug" (31-33). This is the goal of all the main characters that J.R.R. Tolkien portrays in the novel, The Hobbit. It starts as any normal day for Bilbo, sitting in his quiet home, enjoying the piece and quiet and having a good smoke. The next thing Bilbo knows, an old friend named Gandalf appears before him. They reminisce for awhile about past times and lost adventures. Gandalf finally decides to leave Bilbo in piece, but not without convincing him of the journey they should soon embark on. Bilbo wakes up the next day to find thirteen knew faces in his home. Thirteen dwarves to be exact. They continue to propose to Bilbo the plan of stealing back the gold and treasures that was once theirs. Before Bilbo knows what's going on, he sets out, with his new friends, to conquer the Dragon that stole not only their riches, but also the lives of many men who d... ...e found. . . . That is why I settled on burglary. . . . And here is our little Bilbo Baggins, the burglar" (30). This quote is a perfect example of how The Hobbit is unusual. Not only is Bilbo not a fierce warrior, but he is also a thief. Heroes usually have the record of being loyal and honorable, but because Bilbo is a burglar, he isn't quite as honorable as most would think. In The Hobbit, J.R.R. Tolkien takes the reader on a unique fantasy epic without the traits of previous epics like Homer's Illiad. By using the different traits, the hobbit has set a new standard for modern epics, and will continue to inspire future authors to compose classic yet groundbreaking novels.       Works Cited    Harmon, William, and Holman, C. H. "Epic," Handbook to Literature. New York: Macmillian, 1992.    Tolkien, J.R.R. The Hobbit. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1966.

The Educational Value of Platos Early Socratic Dialogues Essay

The Educational Value of Plato's Early Socratic Dialogues ABSTRACT: When contemplating the origins of philosophical paideia one is tempted to think of Socrates, perhaps because we feel that Socrates has been a philosophical educator to us all. But it is Plato and his literary genius that we have to thank as his dialogues preserve not just Socratic philosophy, but also the Socratic educational experience. Educators would do well to better understand Plato's pedagogical objectives in the Socratic dialogues so that we may appreciate and utilize them in our own educational endeavors, and so that we may adapt the Socratic experience to new interactive educational technologies. Plato designed his Socratic dialogues to arm students for real world challenges and temptations. First, in both form and function the dialogues attempt to replicate the Socratic experience for their audience. They demand from their readers what Socrates demanded from his students: active learning, self-examination, and an appreciation for the complexity and importance of w isdom. Second, the dialogues challenge the conflation of professional and personal excellence, best exemplified by sophists such as Hippias, and exhort their reader to pursue personal aretà ª separately from and alongside practical and professional skills or technai. Third, they aim not to transmit some prepackaged formula for success, but to teach students to learn for themselves; that is to love and pursue wisdom. The Socratic dialogues, and philosophic dialogue itself, are educationally important in that they teach us to be philosophers in the literal sense. It is instructively ironic that scholars look immediately to the Republic when considering Plato's theory of education, yet most of... ...oral sense from being good at a particular skill . (3) I am here reminded of one of my own student's reaction to Socrates. A meek Vietnamese woman who said barely anything in class wrote, "Socrates gives me the courage to stand up for my belief and not to be afraid of others who tell me I'm wrong." (4) For this description I am indebted to Prof. Kostas Michaelides of the University of Cyprus. (5) This image is expressed eloquently in Socrates' elenchos of Agathon in Symposium [199c-201c] and of Menexenus in Lysis [216c-221d] (6) See, for example, Laches 192e ff. and Charmides 164bc. (7) I am indebted for this eloquent distinction to Prof. Gerhard A. Rauche, Professor Emeritus of the University of Durban-Westivile, South Africa. (8) These characteristics of the Platonic telos are advocated by Prof. Apostolos Pierris of the University of Patras, Greece

Smoking: Outlaw Tobacco Entirely Essay -- Health

Smoking: Outlaw Tobacco Entirely Smoking in America can be traced for thousands of years. Ancient pictures depict Native Americans smoking pipes. Christopher Columbus discovered tobacco during his travels to Cuba in 1493 and took it Europe. The tobacco plant itself was first grown and used in 6000 BC in America. Tobacco comes from the harvested leaves of the Nicotiana plant. Tobacco contains nicotine along with other substances that are found in cigarettes, smokeless tobacco products such as snuff, and cigars. The nicotine is the addictive portion of tobacco products. Introducing nicotine to the human body stimulates nerve cells, creating either a relaxing or an anxious feeling. In fewer than ten seconds after a cigarette’s smoke is inhaled nicotine enters the brain. Upon building up a tolerance, dependence is formed. During the 1950’s Philip Morris created a tough cowboy character that was used to advertise filtered cigarettes. This character was known as the Marlboro Man. The Marlboro Man was a way to convey images of strength and sexiness to the male population. During the women’s liberation in the 1920’s and 1930’s smoking became popular to the female population as they were fighting for the right to vote and fighting for working the same jobs as men. Cigarette companies geared their product toward women by advertising cigarettes as symbols of strength and equality to women during this time. After World War II, women were sought after by ads focusing on their appearance. Cigarette companies portrayed smoking as sophisticated, feminine, stylish, and attractive to men. Smoking has gone from a sophisticated, elegant, normal look in the early decades, to the offensive, unhealthy, unwanted look it is today. People have not alway... ...one. Works Cited Bjornlund, Lydia. Teen Smoking. San Diego: Reference Point Press, 2010. Print. Ignatavicius, Donna D. and M. Linda Workman. Medical-Surgical Nursing. 6th ed. St. Louis: Sunders, 2009. Print. Schaler, Jeffrey A., and Magda E. Schaler. Smoking: Who Has the Right. New York: Prometheus Books, 1998. Print. â€Å"Smoking Bans in Public Places Are Beneficial.† Tobacco and Smoking. Ed. Kelly Wand. Detroit: Greenhaven Press, 2012. Opposing Viewpoints. Rpt. From â€Å"Reasons for Banning Smoking in Certain Public Outdoor Areas.† ash.org. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 10 May 2012. Turlington, Cristy, and Deanna Staffo. Let’s Clear the Air: 10 Reasons Not to Start Smoking. Montreal: Lobster Press, 2007. Print. Vesterman, William. Reading and Writing Short Arguments. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005. Print.

Culture and Its Importance

Journal of Management Development Emerald Article: Do Cultural Differences Make a Business Difference? : Contextual Factors Affecting Cross-cultural Relationship Success Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Richard Ian Corn Article information: To cite this document: Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Richard Ian Corn, (1994),†Do Cultural Differences Make a Business Difference? : Contextual Factors Affecting Cross-cultural Relationship Success†, Journal of Management Development, Vol. 13 Iss: 2 pp. 5 – 23 Permanent link to this document: http://dx. oi. org/10. 1108/02621719410050219 Downloaded on: 26-10-2012 References: This document contains references to 30 other documents Citations: This document has been cited by 26 other documents To copy this document: [email  protected] com This document has been downloaded 3632 times since 2005. * Users who downloaded this Article also downloaded: * Rosabeth Moss Kanter, (2004),†The challenges of leadership: Interview with Rosabeth Moss Kanter †, Strategic Direction, Vol. 0 Iss: 6 pp. 7 – 10 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/02580540410533190 Rosabeth Moss Kanter, 1997†³Strategies for success in the new global economy: An interview with Rosabeth Moss Kanter†, Strategy & Leadership, Vol. 25 Iss: 6 pp. 20 – 26 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/eb054603 Martin E. Smith, (2003),†Changing an organisation's culture: correlates of success and failure†, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 24 Iss: 5 pp. 249 – 261 http://dx. doi. org/10. 108/01437730310485752 Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by UNIVERSITY OF GREENWICH For Authors: If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service. Information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www. emeraldinsight. com/authors for more information. About Em erald www. emeraldinsight. om With over forty years' experience, Emerald Group Publishing is a leading independent publisher of global research with impact in business, society, public policy and education. In total, Emerald publishes over 275 journals and more than 130 book series, as well as an extensive range of online products and services. Emerald is both COUNTER 3 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation. Related content and download information correct at time of download. Do Cultural Differences Make a Busines s Difference? Contextual Factors Affecting Cros s-cultural Relationship Succes s Rosabeth Moss Kanter and Richard Ian Corn Harvard Business School, Boston, Massachusetts, U S A I think Turks are Turks, and they are very different from Canadians, or North Americans or Brits or whatever. But when I went to Turkey, I was dealing with some Turks who had been dealing with Canadians for 10-15 years; they understood us and had adapted to our ways.Yes, they were still Turks, but they knew what Canadians expected. And they knew Canadians very well, so they forgave us when we made faux pas, they understood that we like Christmas Day off. They were patient and gave us a year to understand them. Cultural Differences 5 Canadian executive, describing experiences in his company’s joint venture in Turkey Of course, initially there were apprehensions about being bought by foreigners. Foreigners to us is anyone outside the local community.American executive, describing his company’s acquisition by a British company In Search of Cultural Differences As economies globalize and organizations increasingly form cross-border relationships, there is a resurgence of interest in the management problems caused by national cultural differences – in values, ideologies, organizational assumptions, work practices, and behavioural styles – spawning research reminiscent of national character studies following the Second World War.Recent findings about the cultural propensities of major countries appear robust, replicated in surveys of the values of managers[1-3], as well as used to explain institutional patterns within countries[4]. Such findings are often consistent with stereotypes evoked by managers to explain others and themselves. Cultural generalizations roll easily off the tongues of people in our studies. For example: several Europeans predicted problems Volvo and Renault could have in combining Volvo’s Swedish egalitarianism with Renault’s French hierarchy.A German executive working in a French-American alliance commented that Germans and Americans had more values in common than either did with the French, invoking this as an Important contributions to the case studies and interviews for this paper by Kalman Applbaum, Pamela Yatsko, Madelyn Yucht, Paul Myers, Clau dia de Dominicis, Tom Hughes, Liska Ouellette, Saba Hapte-Selassie and Thuy Tranthi are gratefully acknowledged, as is the support of the Division of Research of the Harvard Business School. Copyright 1993 by R. M. Kanter and R. I. Corn. Used by permission. Journal of Management Development, Vol. 13 No. 2, 1994 pp. 5-23. MCB University Press, 0262-1711 Journal of Management Development 13,2 6 explanation for why an American sent to London to lead the integration team was viewed as incompetent by the French partner for failing to make authoritative decisions[5]. Furthermore, people often assume cultural heterogeneity creates tensions for organizations.Managers, even within a single country, often prefer homogeneity to heterogeneity, because shared experiences and culture are a basis for trust[6]. Yet, while national cultural differences clearly exist at some level of generality, it is more difficult to specify how the presence of such differences affects organizational and managerial effectiveness. Evidence and observations in a range of situations raise questions about the usefulness of the â€Å"cultural differences† approach for managers. For example: ?When people of different national cultures interact, they can be remarkably adaptable, as in the Japanese history of borrowing practices from other countries[7]. And even though it is supposedly more difficult for managers to operate outside their home culture, multinational companies have long succeeded even when expatriate managers make mistakes. Many industrial firms have operated successfully in foreign countries while showing insensitivity towards local values or treating host-country personnel less well than home-country personnel[8]. Technical orientation can override national orientation. There is evidence that similar educational experiences – e. g. for managers or technical professionals – erase ideological differences; those within the same profession tend to espouse similar val ues regardless of nationality[9,10]. At Inmarsat, an international satellite consortium owned by companies from over 60 countries and staffed at its London headquarters by 55 nationalities, differences between functions were a greater source of conflict than differences between nationalities.Although stereotypes abounded (â€Å"Spaniards are often late†; â€Å"Indians like to talk†), engineers who shared a technical orientation quickly adjusted to each other’s foibles – easily enough that a training programme on cross-cultural management was poorly attended[11]. ? Tensions between organizations which seem to be caused by cultural differences often turn out, on closer examination, to have more significant structural causes. A Scottish construction company had difficulty in its first international partnership with a French company.The failure was widely explained by employees as caused by differences between a â€Å"beer culture† and a â€Å"wine cu lture†. Its next partnership with a Dutch company was more effective, supposedly because of the greater compatibility with the Dutch. But in the first partnership, the companies set up many â€Å"dealbusters†[12], from letting lawyers negotiate for executives, to ignoring assumptions about future business strategy. In the second case, they learned from their mistakes and changed the way they worked with their partner. National cultures had little to do with failure in the first instance and success in the second. Cultural value issues – and issues of â€Å"difference† in general – are more apparent at early stages of relationships than later, before people came to know each other more holistically. And outsiders of any kind, even from the next neighbourhood, can seem different. But once people get to know each other beyond first impressions, relationship dynamics are often determined by power rather than culture. Resistance to the new American chief executive of a British retailer was resistance to change, not to culture differences.National culture issues were simply one more piece of learning as he moved from outsider to insider; they did not affect his ability to do his work of managing a fast and successful turnaround[13]. ? Central country value tendencies are often reported at a very high level of generality, as on average over large populations themselves far from homogeneous. Thus, they fail to apply to many groups and individuals within those countries. There are strong individual, regional, and ethnic differences within countries that are masked by the attempt to find country patterns.For example, an American who had served in Japan during the Second World War liked the docile women he saw there. He decided to marry a Japanese woman, only to discover after the marriage that she came from the one part of Japan that encouraged assertive, dominant women. And not only are there individual as well as ethnic differences wi thin countries, but individuals themselves derive their behaviour from many influences and can hold multiple identities. The chairman of Matra Hachette in Paris calls himself â€Å"a Gascon, a Frenchman, and a European†. Finally, group cultural tendencies are always more apparent from outside than inside the group. Indeed, people often only become aware of their own value or culture in contrast to someone perceived as an outsider[6]. The British writer George Orwell observed that national identity and cultural similarity is salient only for those returning from abroad or when the country is threatened; otherwise, people hold firmly to their individuality and are more aware of differences among those within the same nation.For these reasons, then, we wondered about the circumstances under which cross-cultural interaction would affect business performance. The Foreign Acquisitions Study To learn more about managerial issues provoked by cultural differences, we looked for situat ions in which cross-cultural interactions might produce organizational tensions. Kanter’s studies of international strategic alliances and joint ventures, reported in a series of Harvard case studies and articles[14], had uncovered a large number of strains between cross-border partners, but most of Cultural Differences 7Journal of Management Development 13,2 8 these involved strategic, organizational, political, or financial issues. But perhaps that was because the relationship between venture or alliance partners is assumed to be one of relative equality and independence; each partner retains its own cultural identity as well as control over its own operations, co-operating with the other for limited purposes while insulating core activities from the relationship. We looked for another test in the realm of foreign acquisitions, in which cultural differences would perhaps play a greater role.Foreign acquisitions of US companies increased over the last decade. In 1990, 446 su ch deals, valued at $46. 2 billion, were completed, compared with only 126 deals valued at $4. 6 billion in 1982. Foreign acquisitions of US companies accounted for 28. 1 per cent of the total value of merger and acquisition activity involving at least one company in 1990, compared with only 7. 6 per cent in 1982[15]. This acquisition situation, we proposed, would heighten American managers’ awareness of their own culture and its contrast to the acquirer’s culture, as they merged operations or shifted control over decisions.Since American companies were more accustomed to acquiring foreign operations than being acquired, the â€Å"reversal of roles† experienced when being acquired would perhaps exaggerate tensions enough to bring cultural issues to the surface. Therefore, we developed a pilot project with eight companies. T he Companies Approximately 75 interviews with senior and middle managers were conducted by Harvard Business School teams in 1992 and 1993 at eight mid-sized New England-based American companies which had been acquired by foreign companies in the period between mid-1987 and 1990 (with one exception acquired in 1984).All companies had enough experience with the foreign parent to provide time for cross-cultural contact to occur and any problems to surface; but the acquisition was also recent enough for managers to have fresh memories. The circumstances surrounding the acquisitions differed in some respects. One was a strictly arms-length financial investment in which a well-known sporting goods manufacturer was acquired by a Venezuelan financial group as its only US holding in a leveraged buyout from investors who had acquired it two years earlier; as long as profits were high, there was minimal contact with the parent.In two other cases, there was a history of relationships between the foreign parent and the acquired company prior to the acquisition: a familyowned retailer had developed a business partnership with a large r but also family-owned British chain four years before the acquisition as part of a succession plan; and a metals manufacturer had formed a number of joint ventures with a Japanese conglomerate beginning seven years before the acquisition, turning to its Japanese partner as a defensive tactic against a hostile takeover threat.Other acquisitions also stemmed from financial distress: an armaments manufacturer was bought by a British conglomerate after the US company faltered under a sequence of four different American owners; an abrasives manufacturer was bought by a French company as a â€Å"white knight† in a takeover battle with a British company; and a US retailer was sold to a Japanese retailer when it no longer fit its US manufacturing company parent’s strategy. In many of the cases, then, foreign acquirers were sought by the US companies to solve a problem.Two of the companies, given the pseudonyms Metalfab and Hydrotech, were observed by the second author in par ticular depth. Both were engineeringoriented manufacturing companies with operations primarily in the US and annual sales between $100 and $200 million. Both were previously owned by financially-troubled US parents whose core business was in a different industry, and both were bought by well-respected, internationally-experienced companies in the same industry.Corn conducted 30 interviews at Metalfab, a manufacturer of fabricated metal products acquired about five years earlier by Fabritek, pseudonym for a Swedish manufacturer in the same business. He also conducted 21 interviews at Hydrotech, a designer and manufacturer of hydraulic systems acquired about three years earlier by Gruetzi, pseudonym for a German-Swiss manufacturer of industrial energy systems.But while Metalfab was acquired by a company of similar size and was operating at a pretax profit, Hydrotech’s new parent was much larger and more diversified geographically and technologically, and Hydrotech was accumulat ing significant losses. Cultural Differences 9 Overview of the Findings The interviews at all eight companies focused on the history of the companies’ relationships, their business situations and business strategies, the amount and kind of cross-cultural contact between managers, difficulties and how they had been resolved, and any organizational changes which had come about as a result of the merger.We expected cultural differences to play a prominent role in the dynamics of the integration, especially because so many questions probed these issues specifically – from asking for characterizations of â€Å"typical† American and parent country managers to comparing managerial styles in concrete situations. (The study was thus â€Å"biased† towards finding cultural differences and tensions because of them. ) We expected many difficulties to arise, necessitating many organizational changes, and we expected American companies to resist learning from their fore ign company parents.We also expected some combinations to be more volatile than others, such as the Japanese-American interactions, either because of prejudice or because of values and style differences. We found, instead, that nationality-based culture was one of the less significant variables affecting the integration of the companies and their organizational effectiveness. We found that relatively few issues or problems arose which could be labelled â€Å"cultural†, even though managers were able to identify style differences easily that fit common cultural patterns.We also found that very few measures were taken to facilitate cultural integration. Only a moderate number of difficulties were encountered or organizational changes Journal of Management Development 13,2 10 necessitated, and US companies learned from their foreign parents. Furthermore, there was no discernable pattern of cultural compatibility; all nationalities worked well with their American acquisitions. In general, mergers and acquisitions create significant stress on organizational members, as separate organizational cultures and strategies are blended, ven within one country[12]. Differences in national cultures are assumed to add another layer of complexity to the merger process. But our findings suggest that contextual factors play the dominant role in determining the smoothness of the integration, the success of the relationship, and whether or not cultural differences become problematic. These findings lead us to conclude that the significance of cultural differences between employees or managers of different nationalities has been overstated.Cultural values or national differences are used as a convenient explanation for other problems, both interpersonal and organizational, such as a failure to respect people, group power and politics, resentment at subordination, poor strategic fit, limited organizational communication, or the absence of problem-solving forums. Such differen ces are invoked as explanations for the uncomfortable behaviour of others when people have limited contact or knowledge of the context behind the behaviour.Culture versus Context as an Explanatory Factor Most interviewees were able to identify a number of ways in which they differed â€Å"culturally† from their foreign colleagues in values, interpersonal style, and organizational approach. Many of these â€Å"fit† the position of countries on dimensions Hofstede[1] identified, especially power distance and individualism/ collectivism. The first difference issue mentioned, however, was an objective one: Language problems. A majority of Americans found the difficulty in overcoming language differences with all but the British acquirers to be the biggest â€Å"negative† surprise of their respective mergers.One American at Metalfab stated that â€Å"during initial meetings, we assumed that when we spoke English to the Swedes and they nodded their heads, they unders tood what we were saying. Now we realize the nods only meant that they heard the words†. Employees at Metalfab and Hydrotech also recalled meetings in which their foreign colleagues would agree to adopt some new procedure, â€Å"only to go right back to doing things the same old way as soon as they left the meeting†. American employees noted cultural differences in decision-making styles.Many argued that their foreign parents’ management team took a longer-term view. Americans at Hydrotech and Metalfab routinely expressed frustration with the unwillingness of German-Swiss and Swedish managers to make decisions without a great deal of analysis. Europeans noted the American reputation for fast, less thoughtful decisions. A British manager involved in the armaments company acquisition said, â€Å"Unlike American companies which manage by quarterly numbers, we at UK headquarters base our strategy and business policies on long-term positioning†.American intervi ewees also identified a number of differences in interpersonal style between themselves and their foreign colleagues which they attributed to national culture. The Swiss were described as â€Å"very orderly and efficient†, the Swedes were universally described as being very serious. British managers were described as less emotional, less community-oriented, more deliberate, and much less likely to â€Å"shoot from the hip† than Americans. Europeans were described by nearly all American employees as being more formal, less open and outgoing, and slower to form friendships than are Americans.Japanese managers were described as very courteous and polite. Several Metalfab employees stated that the Swedes were much more likely to argue with each other publicly than were Americans. One American official recalled that in the early days of the merger, he and an American colleague would stare at each other in board meetings while the Swedes argued among themselves. The American manager claimed that his American colleagues would have been much more likely to discuss such differences privately.The Swedes were also described as having less respect for authority and greater willingness to confront their superiors publicly than are Americans – signs of low power distance in Hofstede’s terms. Other employees stated that Swedish managers are not as â€Å"results-oriented† as Americans when it comes to running meetings, ending meetings without a resolution or an understanding of the next steps. Swedes were described by several American employees as very critical, both of themselves and others.One American manager stated that â€Å"Americans are taught that it is more constructive to give pats on the back than to focus entirely on shortcomings as the Swedes are inclined to do†. In short, most of those interviewed found differences between themselves and their foreign colleagues to be clearly identifiable and immediately noticeable follo wing their respective mergers. Employees attributed a majority of these differences to national culture. But a closer analysis of these responses reveals a tendency for employees to attribute to culture differences which are more situationally-driven.For example, several employees stated the Swedes were unwilling or incapable of adjusting their planning and forecasting assumptions in light of changes in the environment, that the Swedes were more determined than are Americans, to meet old budget targets. This may reflect the fact that as parent, the Swedes and German-Swiss have the ultimate responsibility for financial results. Similarly, slower decision making may reflect the fact that the Swedish parent involves more people in the decision-making process than does its American subsidiary.Of course, the use of greater participation may itself reflect differences in values between Americans and Swedes, but it may also reflect differences in the organizational culture of parent and su bsidiary or in country-specific industry practices. Senior managers generally had more direct contact with the foreign parent and thus more contextual information. They were much more likely to identify differences in business context that explained apparent differences in â€Å"cultural values†. Senior executives at the American retailer acquired by a British company attributed differences in management practices to differences inCultural Differences 11 Journal of Management Development 13,2 12 business environments in the US and UK. For example, the British company appeared to be less interested in people and more interested in facilities. But this was because its operating expenses tended to be weighted more towards rent than to labour, because British supermarkets were typically located in expensive urban areas, whereas in the US supermarkets were generally found outside the commercial core of the city, and US chains had unions which drove up labour costs.There was also a tendency for American employees to attribute interpersonal difficulties with foreign colleagues to cultural differences without recognizing that Americans act in much the same way. There are recent public examples of American board meetings interrupted by public bickering. The popularity of the view that committees rarely accomplish anything similarly attests to the fact that Europeans are not the only ones who have difficulty establishing clear agendas in their meetings.Finally, in the US, American employees frequently complain about superiors who rarely hand out constructive criticism. In sum, Americans were routinely able to identify a number of differences between themselves and their foreign colleagues, but the attribution of these differences to nationality often seemed to be misdirected. Additionally, in many cases, these differences are more suggestive of perception than of reality. Perhaps it was more convenient to attribute differences to culture than to context because o f the popularity of national character stereotypes.The role of national stereotypes was made clear in contrasting what American managers said about their own foreign acquirers (whom they knew well) compared with other nationalities (which they knew less well). An American senior executive at the sporting goods manufacturer had highly positive things to say about his Venezuelan parent, calling Venezuelans â€Å"lovable, amiable, showing a high degree of concern for people†. In contrast, he said, â€Å"The companies you do not want to have take you over are the Germans and the Japanese. They feel they know how to do it better and just come in and take over†.But the companies in our study acquired by Japanese and German-Swiss parents reported just the opposite – that the Japanese, for example, were eager to learn from the American companies they acquired. In short, the greater the experience with managers from another country, the less reliance on negative stereoty pes. Furthermore, while many interviewees were able to identify behavioural style differences between American managers and their foreign parents, they also spoke of cultural compatibilities in values, business strategies, and organizational approach. Such similarities overrode style differences.Both retailers in the pilot study, for example, spoke of the common concerns and philosophies they shared with their foreign parent – one Japanese, one British. Finally, just because people could point to differences, that did not mean that the differences had operational consequences. Interviewees were asked to assess the extent to which cross-cultural differences created difficulties in the relationship between parent and subsidiary. Interestingly, many employees felt that although differences exist between their cultures, such differences did not create significant problems for employees.This finding cuts to the heart of this study’s central question: if cultural differences between a parent and subsidiary do not necessarily lead to significant inter-organizational conflict, what factors moderate the relationship between cultural heterogeneity and organizational conflict? Why do American employees of foreign companies feel that cultural differences between their own firm and their foreign parent have not been particularly problematic? Here, our findings suggest that a number of contextual factors act as mediators in determining whether or not these differences will be problematic.Contextual Factors as Key Determinants of Cros s-cultural Relationship Succes s Six factors emerged in the pilot study that accounted for the ease with which the merger was implemented and the relatively few difficulties attributed to national cultural differences: (1) the desirability of the relationship, especially in contrast to recent experiences of the acquired companies; (2) business compatibility between the two companies, especially in terms of industry and organizatio n; (3) the willingness of the acquirer to invest in the continued performance of the acquiree and to allow operational autonomy while performance improved; (4) mutual respect and communication based on that respect; (5) business success; and (6) the passage of time. Cultural Differences 13 Relationship Desirability The first issue sets the stage for whether the relationship begins with a positive orientation. When people are in distress, poorly-treated in previous relationships, have had positive experiences with their foreign rescuer, and play a role in initiating relationship discussions, they are much more likely to view the relationship as desirable and work hard to accommodate to any differences in cultural style so that the relationship succeeds. First, almost all of the companies in the pilot study were acquired by foreigners after a period of financial distress.A Hydrotech employee said, â€Å"Everyone here was aware of the firm’s financial problems at the time of th e acquisition. News of the purchase was viewed favourably. Gruetzi kept our doors from being padlocked. Everyone recognized that without Gruetzi, Hydrotech might not have made it†. While Metalfab did not have Hydrotech’s financial problems at the time of its acquisition, its employees took comfort from Fabritek’s strong financial condition at the time of the takeover. The abrasives company was rescued by its French acquirer as a â€Å"white knight in a takeover battle†. In all these cases, people were thus more likely to view their Journal of Management Development 13,2 14 acquirers as saviours than villains. Cultural problems were therefore not problematic.When asked to describe their initial reaction to the acquisitions, interviewees in several companies began with a description of how difficult life had been under its former parent. Several foreign parents in our study therefore compared favourably with each subsidiary’s former US parents. Hydrot ech and Metalfab’s former parents had neither understood the business of its subsidiary nor shown any desire to invest in their subsidiary’s long-term growth. The armaments company had four recent owners, several of whom stripped corporate assets and art collections, an experience one manager referred to as being â€Å"raped†. Under new owners who cared about them, employees were therefore more inclined to tolerate and adapt to cultural differences.In other cases, national differences were not a problem because the US and non-US companies had spent several years getting to know each other through joint ventures. The British retailer and the Japanese conglomerate had long worked closely with the American companies they eventually bought. Nearly every respondent at Metalfab and Hydrotech spoke with high regard for their parent’s technical expertise, manufacturing skill, knowledge of the international marketplace, and reputation for quality. As one employee commented, â€Å"Our concerns about the takeover were quickly put to rest. After all, Gruetzi was not an unknown quantity. They were an industry leader and we had worked with them on several projects in the past†.In contrast, respondents who were less familiar with the operations of their acquirer appear to have been the most concerned and apprehensive about the news of the merger when it was first announced. As one employee recalled, â€Å"At first I was sickened by the announcement, but when I saw Fabritek’s product line and the obvious potential for synergy, I became extremely excited†. Several respondents also mentioned that if the acquirer had a reputation for dismantling its acquisitions, they would have been far less sanguine about the takeover and the possibilities for success. Reputation was based not only on past direct experience but also on assumptions about how â€Å"companies like that† behaved. One Metalfab employee claimed that compared wi th other countries, â€Å"the Swedes are just like us†.The conventional wisdom at Metalfab was that Scandinavian firms had a history of keeping their acquisitions intact. Finally, the ability to choose made a difference. In several cases, the companies themselves initiated the search for a foreign partner. The element of surprise that creates anxiety and uncertainty was missing. A Hydrotech employee stated: â€Å"We wanted to be sold; I viewed the announcement as a real positive – someone wanted to buy us! † Business Compatibility Organizational similarities were more important to most companies than national cultural differences. At the time of their respective mergers, employees of Metalfab, Hydrotech, and both retailers in the study took immediate comfort rom the fact that their new acquirers were in the same industry as they, especially the retailer sold by an American manufacturer to a Japanese retailer. As one Hydrotech employee stated: â€Å"Our former p arent showed no commitment to, or interest in, our business. Now, there is a much better fit†. Another employee stated: â€Å"Everyone was initially apprehensive about the takeover but at least we were bought by a company which understands and cares about our business. This turned our initial apprehension into excitement†. Along similar lines, Metalfab employees reacted very favourably to the news that â€Å"a metal company was purchasing a metal company†.Organizational similarity meant that employees could feel that they play important roles in carrying out their parent’s strategy and believe that their parent values their contribution. As one Hydrotech employee stated: â€Å"Despite the fact that Gruetzi is a much larger company than our former parent was, it is easier to see how we fit into their plans†. Thus, at both Hydrotech and Metalfab, the benefits of the merger were transparent to employees. As one manager stated, â€Å"This was an easy a nnouncement to make; the merger spoke for itself†. Employees at Hydrotech and Metalfab felt that sharing a common technical orientation with their parent allowed both rganizations to more easily overcome national differences. Several employees emphasized what a pleasure it was to work with a parent organization that understands the business they are in. As one engineer stated, â€Å"our two firms are like twins that were separated at birth†. Employees at both Hydrotech and Metalfab also feel that their parents’ expertise and credibility in the industry has made it easier to accept them in the role of acquirer. One Metalfab employee’s comment captured the attitude of the firm’s employees towards foreign ownership when he claimed: â€Å"It doesn’t bother me in the least that our parent is a foreign company because we speak the same language, Metal! A majority of those interviewed concluded that they would now prefer being taken over by a forei gn company in the same business than by an American firm in a different industry. Cultural Differences 15 Investment without Interference Of all the actions taken by a foreign partner, none seems to have a more positive impact on morale and on attitudes towards foreigners than a foreign owner’s decision to invest capital in its subsidiaries. Fabritek spent $11 to 12 million upgrading the production facilities of its US subsidiary during each of the first two years following the acquisition and has invested an additional $6 to 8 million annually ever since.Gruetzi has similarly invested in new equipment for Hydrotech’s Ohio production facility. To most American employees, such investment demonstrated that its new parent was committed to the company’s long-term health. When investment was accompanied by operational autonomy, the relationship was viewed very favourably and cross-cultural tensions minimized. In three cases – sporting goods manufacturer acquir ed by a Venezuelan company and both the retailer and the manufacturer acquired by Japanese companies – feeling lack of cultural tensions was a function of the Journal of Management Development 13,2 16 minimal interference of the foreign company in its new US operations. â€Å"They et us do what we are good at†, said an executive at the sporting goods firm, â€Å"which is make money†. Employees at Hydrotech and Metalfab were surprised by the extent to which their parents allowed them to manage their own operations. As one Hydrotech employee stated: â€Å"Things have turned out much better than I originally expected. Gruetzi has not overmanaged us, they kept our management team intact, and we have not been forced to spend a lot of our time defending ourselves†. Metalfab employees were similarly pleased that their parent has allowed the firm to retain day-to-day control: â€Å"While our parent provides us with suggestions, they have allowed us to run the sh ow here†.We argue that American employees are less likely to view cultural heterogeneity as a problem when foreign management allows such autonomy along with adding resources. It should be pointed out that complete autonomy was not welcomed by all employees; a minority of employees (those dissatisfied with their firm’s policies) mentioned that they would be happier if the parent took a more active role in managing its subsidiary. At least one Hydrotech engineer wished that Gruetzi would force the company to standardize its designs and acquire better tools for its engineers to work with. At Metalfab, several employees expressed disappointment that its parent had not prevented the company from moving operations to Mexico.Furthermore, that high degrees of autonomy have possibly slowed down the speed with which the merged organizations develop a common culture. Several Metalfab employees reported that it has been difficult to â€Å"pull our two families together and get th e message out to customers that we are one firm†. Still, for the Americans autonomy generally meant that they did not feel foreigners were imposing â€Å"foreign ways† on them, which made them more tolerant of differences rather than resistant to them. Open Communication and Mutual Respect Nearly all interviewees agreed that open communication and showing mutual respect are critical to developing trust and ensuring a successful partnership.One retailer, for example, felt that its new Japanese parent wanted to learn from American practice, which made them feel valued and made rapport with the Japanese easy to develop. Tensions occurred, in contrast, when foreign colleagues did not show respect for American technology and expertise. At Fabritek, Swedish engineers and marketing personnel initially viewed Metalfab’s traditional, composite products as inferior to their own, all-metal product, which required tighter engineering and manufacturing tolerances in order to ensure a perfect seal. As a result, Americans said that the Swedes saw themselves as â€Å"the real engineers† in the company. But note here that the tensions were caused by technical differences, not cultural ones. ) Similarly, Hydrotech engineers described their German-Swiss colleagues as very arrogant and protective about Gruetzi’s products; there was a feeling that Hydrotech engineers should not â€Å"tamper† with their parent’s designs. Employee sensitivity to possible cultural differences played a significant role in reducing outbreaks of cross-cultural tension. One Hydrotech employee reasoned that cultural clashes had been avoided mainly because employees had been so concerned that such tensions could occur that they put more effort into trying to understand one another.Similar concerns led executives at Fabritek and Metalfab to schedule frequent meetings with each other soon after the merger; these meetings improved understanding and lessened tens ion between the two firms. Ironically, one senior American official recalled that he had rarely met with executives from the firm’s former US parent â€Å"even though they were located right down the road from the company†. Though formal cross-cultural training programmes were rare, open communication helped build relationships. Sensitivity to cultural differences and willingness to deal with problems directly minimized organizational tension. Cultural Differences 17 Business Success Nothing succeeds like success. People are willing to overlook cultural differences in relationships which bring clear benefits.But unsuccessful ventures produce squabbling even among people who are culturally similar. Creating opportunities for joint success between parent and subsidiary promotes acceptance of cross-cultural differences and creates support for the relationship. Several months before Hydrotech’s acquisition by Gruetzi, a company project had â€Å"gone sour† du e to a technical malfunction. After the merger, Hydrotech used Gruetzi’s technology to solve the problem. For the many employees who had suffered through the project’s difficulties, this single act sold the virtue of the partnership. Another Hydrotech employee stated: â€Å"We had not realized how quickly Gruetzi’s technology could be put to use.In only one year, our department was able to bid on two projects and win a $45 million contract†. Nothing could possibly send a more positive message about the benefits of partnership than winning business because of it. Ongoing financial performance affects the quality and nature of communications between parent and subsidiary, and thus plays a role in determining whether or not cultural differences are viewed as problematic. If success reduces tensions, deteriorating performance increases them. Employees noted that travel budgets came under increasing pressure during periods of poor performance, and thus, fewer meetings take place between American and foreign employees.In difficult times, communication between parent and subsidiary may deteriorate as employees in each organization focus on their own problems. Finally, poor performance leads to frustration, fingerpointing, and reduced trust. One Hydrotech manager noticed that as Gruetzi has encountered more financial difficulties, they became increasingly demanding of Hydrotech and focused more on the company’s short-term operating results than in the past. The Pas sage of Time Does time heal all wounds? Time, at least, reduces anxieties and replaces stereotypes with a more varied view of other people. The levels of cross-cultural Journal of Management Development 13,2 18 tension vary as a function of the stage in the relationship-building process.Anxieties at Hydrotech and Metalfab were highest during the days immediately following the announcement of each takeover. This initial anxiety declined as the merger entered a transition ph ase in which management showed reluctance to create conflict. Employees of both subsidiaries also reacted positively to foreign management’s willingness to discuss issues and listen to their concerns at that time. According to one employee, â€Å"these meetings made us feel good about the changes and made us realize how alike our philosophies were†. But during the transition phase, employees also underestimated the degree of cultural heterogeneity and the potential for conflict to erupt.As management began to focus on more substantive issues and the amount of communications between American and foreign employees grew, a new realization set in that the cultural differences between the two firms were greater than initially realized, which required more awareness and sensitivity to avoid conflict. It appears likely then, that employee perceptions of cross-cultural tension are affected by the passage of time and by the merger process itself. One might also expect that empl oyee attitudes towards cultural heterogeneity will change as Americans and foreign employees work together and become more familiar with each others’ customs and values. Mistrust is always more likely at early stages of relationships.People at Hydrotech and Metalfab felt their new foreign parents were particularly guarded in discussing their technology during the first months together. As one employee mentioned: â€Å"It was like playing poker during the first year. You always got an answer to your question but the question was answered as narrowly as possible – even when, by withholding information, the answer was misleading†. But another engineer recognized the significance of sharing technology noting that â€Å"when our parent provides us with technology, they are giving us their life’s work†. T he Negative Side of Cross-cultural Interaction: T hreat and Prejudice Positive views of the relationship between US company and foreign parent predomin ated, but they were not universal in the companies studied.Top management and those with the greatest day-to-day contact were most likely to be favourable. Those at lower ranks anxious about the implications for their careers were more likely to express negative views, including prejudice and resentment, reacting the most nationalistically to the news of a foreign takeover. One American reported how â€Å"sick† he was over the fact that â€Å"this country is gradually being sold off to foreigners†. Some higher level managers commented that they would have been more comfortable if their acquirer had been American, but this preference did not seem to affect the relationship. A manager at the armaments company reported: â€Å"We would rather have been bought by a US company.There is an element of national pride, especially in our industry. We are very patriotic. There is no one in the company that would say we are a British firm. We all wear and buy ‘made in USAâ⠂¬â„¢ products†. Still, nationalist sentiments did not prevent this manager from declaring the relationship a success and identifying very few crosscultural problems. The most significant factor in determining employee reactions to acquisition was self-interest: how the change would affect their own standing in the firm. Virtually all interviewees reacted to news of the acquisition with the same question: â€Å"How will this impact on my career in this organization? †.Those employees who were most likely to suffer a loss of prestige or power, or who had reason to feel threatened by the mergers were most likely to react unfavourably to it. However, the fact that the vast majority of employees in both companies did not react in this way attests to just how apparent the benefits of these mergers were to most employees. Therefore threat could work both ways; if the foreign company improved performance, jobs would be saved. A manager at the armaments company observed,  "The community and employees understand there are differences between us and the British. But for them, having good jobs is more valuable. When corporate survival is at stake, people cannot afford to have culture become an issue†.Attitudes were shaped by symbolic acts taken by the foreign parents as much as by more substantive actions. One Metalfab employee recalled the day that Fabritek’s president arranged to have group photographs taken of all employees in the US so that they could be shown to people back in Sweden. â€Å"Fabritek immediately impressed me as a very people-oriented company†. The Attribution of Organizational Problems to National Culture Our findings suggest, then, that contextual factors act to either fan the flames of intergroup conflict and cross-cultural polarization or encourage organizational members to accept these differences. In the pilot study, organizational and technical compatibilities overwhelm cultural differences.Cultural differe nces thus seem to be a residual category to which people attribute problems in the absence of a supportive context. Cultural differences do not automatically cause tensions. But when tensions do arise – often due to situational factors such as lack of communication or poor performance – people blame many of the organizational difficulties they encounter on cultural heterogeneity – on the presence of others who seem different – rather than to the context within which these problems took place. This view is consistent with Chris Argyris’s perspective on defensive routines in organizations[16]. Why do people blame culture for problems and scribe differences between their own behaviour and that of their foreign colleagues to dispositional factors (the kind of people they are) rather than to situational factors (the organizational context)? First, cultural heterogeneity presents a conspicuous target for employees to point at when looking for an explanat ion for their problems. Such differences are readily apparent in early stages of contact between people who differ in a visible way, such as race, gender, or language, especially when there are only a few â€Å"tokens† such as expatriate managers among many â€Å"locals†[6]. Pre- Cultural Differences 19 Journal of Management Development 13,2 20 onceived notions and prejudices which employees bring into the evaluative process increase the likelihood that people will attribute behaviour to nationality. In-group favouritism is evoked in situations of cross-cultural contact. Research has shown that people want to favour members of their own group (the in-group) over others. Motivational theorists hold that self-esteem is enhanced if people value their own group and devalue other groups[17,18]. Such favouritism leads to a set of cognitive biases which reinforce the distinction between in-group and out-group members. People expect in-group members to display more desirable a nd fewer undesirable behaviours than out-group members[19].As a result, people are more likely to infer negative dispositions from undesirable and out-group behaviours than from undesirable in-group behaviours, and are less likely to infer positive dispositions from desirable outgroup behaviours than from desirable in-group behaviours[20-23]. Furthermore, people tend to remember behaviour which is congruent with their expectations over behaviour which is inconsistent with their views[24,25]. Thus, memories reinforce in-group favouritism as well. In-group biases are especially likely to form when individuals identify strongly with their group and when in-group members view other groups as a threat[17]. During an acquisition process, employees who work for, and identify with their company for many years suddenly find that another firm, with its own culture vision, values, and ways of doing things is responsible for their future.Cross-border mergers offer a particularly favourable envi ronment for such biases to develop because group membership is clearly defined by national as well as organizational boundaries. At both Hydrotech and Metalfab, in-group favouritism and cognitive biases may have been the driving forces behind the tendency among Americans to attribute wrongfully â€Å"bad news† to their foreign parent (i. e. out-group members). In one case, Hydrotech management had frozen salaries and extended the required working week from 40 to 44 hours after the merger in an effort to â€Å"impress Gruetzi by showing a willingness to make a few difficult decisions†. Many Hydrotech junior employees attributed this unpopular policy to Gruetzi’s management.Ironically, according to one middlelevel manager, when Gruetzi found out about these changes, they gave Hydrotech’s president one month to reverse the policy. In another example, soon after Metalfab announced plans to transfer some of its manufacturing operations to Mexico, rumours began circulating on the factory floor that the Swedes were behind the decision. When senior management in the US found out about the rumours, the company’s president called a meeting with all employees and took full responsibility for the decision. But many blue-collar workers continued to blame the Swedes for this unpopular move. They also attributed the decision to downsize the American workforce to the company’s foreign parent.A second explanation for why cultural differences are inappropriately invoked is called the â€Å"fundamental attribution error†[26] – a tendency to attribute one’s own behaviour to the situation but others’ behaviour to their â€Å"character†. People attribute negative behaviour of foreign colleagues to their nationality or culture (dispositional factors) rather than to situational or contextual factors which are operating behind the scenes[27]. For example, Metalfab interviewees initially viewed their Swedish c olleagues as fractious (i. e. â€Å"the Swedes are a stubborn people†) before it occurred to them that language problems had caused many early misunderstandings.They attributed the fact that their Swedish colleagues were more engineering oriented and less marketing oriented to national biases (â€Å"Swedes design bulldozers for the kind of work a garden shovel could do†) rather than to differences in product features and to the requirements of the European market. For example, rigid engineering standards for Fabritek’s all-metal products required engineers in Sweden to play a more central role in the parent’s operations, whereas the competitiveness of the US market demanded that marketing personnel play a more critical role in US decision making. But those who had more direct contact with the foreign parent, such as senior managers, also had more contextual information and were less likely to make the â€Å"fundamental attribution error†.If in-grou p biases and the fundamental attribution error are behind the tendency to view cultural heterogeneity as problematic, what steps might management take to promote inter-organizational co-operation in cross-border mergers? Our findings suggest that actions which make the relationship desirable, reduce uncertainty, show respect for the other group, create communication channels, and ensure business success will encourage employees to identify with their foreign colleagues and view the company as one organization. Creating an atmosphere of mutual respect, promoting open communication, investing in the future, maximizing opportunities to experience joint success, and taking steps to familiarize employees with their counterpart’s products and markets reduce the likelihood that cultural differences will be viewed as a source of organizational tension.Conclusion These pilot study findings are only suggestive, of course. We have a small number of cases from one region. While none of t hem can yet be called a longterm success, they have survived a period of integration during which other companies which perhaps did experience debilitating cultural problems could have called off the marriage. We could be looking only at the â€Å"winners† that managed cultural differences well. Indeed, those companies experiencing problems were more likely to turn down our request to participate in the pilot study. But if tilted towards successes, then this research points to some of the circumstances that contribute to successful cross-cultural relationships.And since we â€Å"biased† the interviews towards identification of cultural differences and cultural tensions, the relative absence of tension gives additional weight to our argument that contextual and situational factors, such as technical fit, business performance, and abundant communication, are more significant determinants of relationship effectiveness. Cultural Differences 21 Journal of Management Develop ment 13,2 22 Employees at each of the companies studied were able to identify a number of cultural differences between their own organization and that of their parent. Nevertheless, few employees viewed cultural heterogeneity as a significant source of tension in their firm. Such findings lend support to the notion that national cultural differences do not necessarily increase the amount of tension between organizations or make partnerships among companies from different countries untenable.This article proposes that there are a number of factors which help to determine how employees react to foreign ownership. It calls into question the assumption that the larger the social distance or cultural gap between the national cultures of two merged organizations, the greater will be the potential for strain in the relationship between employees. The findings from our pilot study suggest contextual factors are extremely important mediators in crosscultural relationships. These factors infl uence how cultural differences are interpreted and whether they are viewed by employees as problematic. Indeed, they may even determine whether â€Å"cultural differences† are identified at all. References 1. Hofstede, G. Cultures and Organization, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1991. 2. Kanter, R. M. , â€Å"Transcending Business Boundaries: 12,000 World Managers View Change†, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 69, May-June 1991. 3. Hampden-Turner, C. , â€Å"The Boundaries of Business: Commentaries from the Experts†, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 69, September-October 1991. 4. Lodge, G. C. and Vogel, E. F. (Eds), Ideology and National Competitiveness: An Analysis of Nine Countries, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA, 1987. 5. Kanter, R. M. , Applbaum, K. and Yatsko, P. , FCB and Publicis ( A ): Forming the Alliance, Harvard Business School Case Records, Boston, MA, 1993. 6. Kanter, R. M. Men and Women of the Corporation, Basic Books, New York, NY, 1977. 7. Westn ey, E. , Imitation and Innovation: T he Transfer of Western Organizational Patterns to Meiji, Japan, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1987. 8. Starbuck, W. H. , â€Å"Learning by Knowledge-intensive Firms†, Journal of M anagement Studies, Vol. 29 No. 6, 1992, pp. 713-40. 9. Haire, M. , Ghiselli, E. E. and Porter, L. W. , Managerial T hinking, Wiley, New York, NY, 1966. 10. Wuthnow, R. and Shrum, W. , â€Å"Knowledge Workers as a ‘New Class’: Structural and Ideological Convergence among Professional-Technical Workers and Managers†, Work and Occupations, Vol. 10, 1983, pp. 471-87. 11. Myers, P. and Kanter, R. M. Inmarsat 1991 , Harvard Business School Case Records, Boston, MA, 1992. 12. Kanter, R. M. , When Giants Lea r n to Dance: M aster ing the Challenges of S trategy, Management, and Careers in the 1990s, Simon and Schuster, New York, NY, 1989. 13. Kanter, R. M. and Gabriel, L. , BhS ( A ): Opening Boundaries, Harvard Business School Case Records , Boston, MA, 1992. 14. Kanter, R. M. , â€Å"Competing on Relationships: How Companies Build Collaborative Advantage†, Harvard Business Review, May-June 1994. 15. M& A Almanac, Vol. 26 No. 6, 1992, p. 54. 16. Argyris, C. , Overcoming Organizational Defenses: Facilitating Organizational Learning, Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA, 1990. 17. Tajfel, H. and Turner, J. C. â€Å"An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict†, in Austin, W. S. and Worchel, S. (Eds), T he S ocial Psychology of Intergroup Relations , Brooks/Cole, Monterey, CA, 1979, pp. 33-47. 18. Turner, J. C. , Rediscovering the Social Group: A S elf-categorization T heory, Blackwell, Oxford, 1987. 19. Howard, J. W. and Rothbart, M. , â€Å"Social Categorization and Memory for In-group and Outgroup Behavior, Jour nal of Personal ity and S ocial Psychology , Vol. 38 No. 2, 1980, pp. 301-10. 20. Taylor, D. M. and Jaggi, V. , â€Å"Ethnocentrism and Causal Attribution in a South Indian Context†, Journal of Cros s Cultural Psychology, Vol. 5 No. 2, 1974, pp. 162-71. 21. Allen, V. L. and Wilder, D. A. â€Å"Categorization, Belief Similarity, and Intergroup Discrimination†, Jour nal of Personal ity and S ocial Psychology , Vol. 32 No. 6, 1975, pp. 971-7. 22. Allen, V. L. and Wilder, D. A. , â€Å"Group Categorization and Attribution of Belief Similarity†, Small Group Behavior, Vol. 10 No. 1, 1979, pp. 73-80. 23. Pettigrew, T. F. , â€Å"The Ultimate Attribution Error: Extending Allport’s Cognitive Analysis of Prejudice†, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 5 No. 4, 1979, pp. 461-76. 24. Hastie, R. and Kumar, P. A. , â€Å"Person Memory: Personality Traits as Organizing Principles in Memory for Behavior†, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 37 No. 1, 1979, pp. 25-38. 25. Srull, T. D. Lichtenstein, M. and Rothbart, M. , â€Å"Associative Storage and Retrieval Processes in Person Memory†, Jour nal of E xper imental Psychology: L ea r ning, M emor y and Cognition, Vol. 11 No. 2, 1985, pp. 316-45. 26. Ross, L. , â€Å"The Intuitive Psychologist and His Shortcomings: Distortions in the Attribution Process†, in Berkowitz, L. (Ed. ), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 10, Academic Press, New York, NY, 1977, pp. 173-220. 27. Jones, E. E. and Nisbett, R. E. , â€Å"The Actor and the Observer: Divergent Perceptions of the Causes of Behavior†, in Jones, E. E. , Kanouse, D. E. , Kelley, H. H. , Nisbett, R. E. , Valins, S. and Weiner, B. Eds), Perceiving the Causes of Behavior , General Learning Press, Morristown, NJ, 1971, pp. 79-94. Further Reading Locksley, A. , Ortiz, V. and Hepburn, C. , â€Å"Social Categorization and Discriminatory Behavior: Extinguishing the Minimal Intergroup Discrimination Effect†, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 39 No. 5, 1980, pp. 773-83. Maass, A. , Salvi, D. , Arcuri, L. and Semin, G. , â€Å"Language Use in Intergroup Contexts: T he Linguistic Intergroup Bias†, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 57 No. 6, 1989, pp. 981-93. Tajfel, H. , â€Å"Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations†, Annual Review of Psychology, Annual Reviews, Stanford, CA, 1982, pp. 1-39. Cultural Differences 23